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c-s/a. 


snow nno ice 

PHOTOGRRPHV 


yp 

tf. W. Wagner 


CAMERA CRAFT PUBLISHING COMPANY 
425 Bush Street San Francisco, Calif. 




2 ^ 


TRllo 
,W2 6 ~ 

/? 3* 


Copyright 1938 

Camera Craft Publishing Company 

San Francisco 


First Edition 
November 1938 


c 

c, < 


I 



©ClA 1 2451 5. 

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

BY 

THE MERCURY PRESS, SAN FRANCISCO 


JAN 10 1939 


To 

My Wife 


A cheerful dark room widow, 
A constructive critic, 

Who loves to explore a print, 
in search of a picture 


CONTENTS 


Chapter I. ...•••• 
Preliminary Considerations. 

Chapter II. . . . • • • • • . 18 

Sensing A Picture—Photographic Limitations. 

Chapter III. 24 

Equipment. 

Chapter IV. ........ 29 

Winter Moods and Treatments. 

Chapter V.46 

Special Fields. 

Chapter VI. ........ 51 

Negative Emulsions and Exposure. 

Chapter VII. ........ 61 

Development of the Negative. 

Chapter VIII.67 

Printing. 

Chapter IX. ........ 77 

Data and Difficulties. 

Chapter X. ....... 81 

Composition. 

Chapter XI. ........ 90 

Exhibition of Prints. 

Chapter XII. ........ 94 

Acknowledgement. 


6 





Snow and Ice 
Photography 




















































































































































. 




















































CHAPTER ONE 


Preliminary Considerations 


Appreciation 

Sam Winters is regarded as a bit “queer” by his more 
modern friends. His physiological make-up is such that 
summer means hot suffocating hours. Relief at the sight 
of the first scurrying snowflake of autumn is like the joy 
felt hy others at the coming of spring. Months of cool 
comfortable temperatures are ahead, even though thick 
clothing in the open and fuel in the home are going to he 
needed. And, although Sam is not entirely conscious of 
the fact, his spirit brightens with the memory of younger 
days, his romping and coasting over fresh snow, later his 
hunting trips when the mysteries of wild animal habits 
were revealed hy tracks leading over the white carpets of 
field and wood. 

And when a “buster” of a storm lays down a real blan¬ 
ket of white, Sam is content. The transformation from 
drab landscape reminds him of the perceptions of 
Whittier who wrote: 

“A smooth white mound the brush-pile showed, 

A fenceless drift what once was road” 

Now, our odd friend finds happiness in long walks, 
alone or with a companion. He never has much to say— 
too busy composing and classifying the pictures he finds. 


9 


No, he doesn’t carry a camera—never learned how to 
operate one. His mind is his album of pictures. His eye 
sees through dazzling highlights, into deep shadows, and 
retains tone ranges impossible to record on paper. En¬ 
joyment is found in translucence and texture, purple and 
blue in shadow patterns, curving forms of banks and 
drifts, mystery and brilliance in ice forms. 

His vision does not take in too much at a time. It 
selects the outstanding object or pattern of interest, glori¬ 
fies it by mental isolation from surrounding forms which 
are subdued to provide foreground or background and 
supporting balance. 

Fortunately, winter photographers, to be successful, 
need not possess all of Sam’s queer characteristics: they 
are free to enjoy all seasons of the year. However, their 
success with snow and ice is dependent upon an apprecia¬ 
tion and sympathy akin to Sam’s attitude toward cold 
weather antics. In addition to appreciation and beyond a 
knowledge of photographic technique, they feel a spon¬ 
taneous persistence, an urge to seek and hunt. They are 
able to evaluate the obscure as well as the obvious pic¬ 
tures which winter makes available in the colder sections. 

Picture Locations and Possibilities 

Opportunities may exist in any location, depending 
upon weather conditions and upon direction and quality 
of the light. One’s natural inclination toward type of 
subject should be favored. 

Human interest subjects are available in pedestrians 
on a snowy street, children making a snow man in the 
front yard, workmen harvesting ice. Sports and action 
pictures are found on the ski slope, on ice where skating 
is in progress. Snow covered mountains, where available, 
offer scenes of majesty. Exploration of parks and long 
tramps through the country are profitable for him who 
seeks the top for pure delineation of form and texture. 
He will find curving roads and paths and streams to add 
to the charm of the picture. 

Repeated patrol of the same district is often fruitful. 


10 


Opportunities change with every position of the sun, 
with every storm, with every thaw and freeze. Note the 
contrast of mood in Figures 1 and 2. 

Six of the photographs tabulated on page 93 which 
have salon acceptances of more than 50% were taken 
within a beat of about one-half mile along the same 
brook. They were taken over a period of four winters. 
Patrol of the beat was begun years earlier, which fact 
suggests the advantage of thorough acquaintance with a 
region of potential pictures. 

If one could suspend himself and camera at any desir¬ 
able position above the landscape, what wonderful 
choices of composition he would have! The view point 
from eye level or tripod top so often flattens out the 
beauty before us or makes prominent the obnoxious hori¬ 
zontal hands running across the view. A way out is to 
seek inclined portions of the landscape, either as views 
or as view points. These are found in the form of hills 
and stream banks. "‘Follow a stream as your guide 
through picture land” is sound advice, whether the 
stream be quiet and wandering or rapid and jumping. 

A stream provides not only curves and inclined banks 
but also snow and ice covered forms whose modeling is 
brought out by exquisite gradations of light. Before the 
surface of the water is frozen over, ripples or reflections 
often supply the finishing touch. Or, reflections alone 
may become the picture, with a strip of snow or ice 
serving as the border. Tree trunk images when reflected 
from mildly disturbed water lose their “photographic 
sootiness” and take on a quality of motion and mystery. 
And what is more attractive than the delicate tones of a 
snowbank reflected and pictured along the edge of darker 
water? 

When the stream is partly frozen over or when the 
effects of thawing and freezing occur in combination, 
curving bands of varying tone and texture supply the 
rhythm evident in many successful pictures. 

Portions of sky with or without clouds may be included 


11 



Figure 1 


“Winter Mirror ” Figure 1, by JT hitcomb, is full of 
snap and sparkle in the reflections, and pictures clean 
cut gradations in the brightly lighted snow. As vision 
travels pleasantly down stream the near-by branches 
guide the eye back toward the beautifully rendered snow 
in the upper right quarter, so that the whole composition 
is appreciated. 

Data: 1/25 second at f:7.7 on Eastman Verichrome 
2y 8 x 4~/ 8 " roll film, no filter, early p.m. in January, sun¬ 
light from right front. Print on Eastman PMC #11 
contrast paper. 

Camera: Eastman Kodak, with Kodak anastigmat, 
f:7.7,152 mm. (6-inch) focal length lens. 


12 






Lazy Brook 


Figure 2 


“Lazy Brook” Figure 2, is a photograph of the same 
bend in the same brook as is seen in “Winter Mirror ” 
It is presented to illustrate, how completely, weather 
and light conditions can change the mood. Slush in the 
stream and hazy diffuse light change the feeling from 
one of ambition to one of indolence. 


Data (uncertain): 1/25 second at f:6.3 on Agfa SS 
Plenachrome 3] 4 " cut film, no filter, late morning in 
March, hazy light. Print on Eastman Vitava Opal G, 
tree forms in upper part lightened by retouching. 







when in harmony with the rest of the scene. The winter 
photographer has an advantage over his summer brother 
here. A snow covered foreground records about the same 
tone as the sky. Foregrounds need not be printed black 
to reveal the clouds. The sky need not be left blank 
white to prevent over-printing of the foreground. Undue 
competition between sky and foreground is to he watched 
for, however. One or the other should predominate in 
interest. 

Panoramic or distant views often fascinate the eye. 
More often they fail to satisfy on paper. Success requires 
something more than a map—a pleasing relation of 
tones and perspective created by lines or by haze in the 
atmosphere. Selective focus is of little avail among 
objects beyond 50 feet. 

Other possibilities are suggested in list form: 

Texture of snow and ice surfaces 
Translucence of sunlit snow on tree branches 
Delicate tones in the curving edges of drifts 
Pattern of shadows cast by trees and hushes 
Fairyland ice forms frozen from the spray of a water 
fall or active stream 

Any novelty of form which also makes a distinctive 
unified and pleasing composition. 

Winter Moods 

To some individuals, December-February weather 
means not much more than cold. For others, like Sam 
Winters, the season is full of various moods. The camera 
fiend who can appreciate these moods, who will brave 
the elements, and who has attained the technique of 
recording them on film and paper, is in line for success. 

Just before a storm, dark clouds and dimly lit snow are 
a portent of uncertainty. Restlessness is in the air. How¬ 
ever, when the snow comes softly and in many large 
flakes, there is more contentment in our mood, a sugges¬ 
tion of the coming of Christmas. A driving blizzard on 
the other hand portrays fierceness to be fought by those 
who are struggling through the storm. Trees and bushes 


14 


swaying in the wind add to the telling. All storms, as 
well as haze, soften distance and impart a desirable feel¬ 
ing of mystery to city skyscrapers and to sentinels of the 
woods, alike. The mystery created by a snowstorm is 
well expressed in Figure 3. A waning storm sometimes 
provides a rare treat—glorious light breaking through 
the clouds, with its promise of warmth and cheer. 

And the next day, when the sun rises in a clear sky, 
we find a fairy-land with such a variety of glad moods 
that one cannot even mention them all. Snow burdened 
trees, houses, white churches—the spirit of Christmas has 
arrived. Splendor is expressed all about us. Perhaps the 
tree branches outside your window carry a pattern of 
translucent snow whose daintiness and delicate grada¬ 
tions are beyond yesterday’s imagination. Or, if the snow 
was dry and the wind was active, nature exhibits her 
skill at sculpture in the fantasy and charm of snowdrifts. 
A happy combination of drifts and shadows was provided 
by nature for the setting of Figure 4. The normally dark 
hanks and rocks along the familiar brook are modeled 
into forms which bring exquisite pleasure to the eye. 
Transparent tree shadows, bent and curved by the con¬ 
tour of the bank, delight the eye with their abandon— 
utter disregard of their dignified source—a high key 
combination, all a challenge to your camera. 

On the ski field youth and health are at play. The 
veteran exhibits elegance and skill as he makes his turn. 
The novice is comedy as he rolls over the tangle of his 
skis. 

At night mystery returns, pierced by streetlights cast¬ 
ing heavy shadows on street and house yard. In the 
country soft moonlight suggests a tryst between mystery 
and romance. 

Sometimes there is no snow: then ice has more oppor¬ 
tunity to express its feelings. The more your ice pictures 
make the sensitive onlooker shiver (in a warm room), the 
more successful they are. However, ice may convey more 
than coldness: hardness, solidity and majesty may he 


15 


felt. In other moods, the play of sunlight on its rippled 
form or on a patterned expanse may he the attraction 
(see Figure 9). 

Late winter has still other moods, to he seen in stained 
snow and decayed ice, saying farewell to winter with the 
warmth of spring in the air (see Figure 6). 

Poetic dreaming does not make pictures. It is only an 
element of inspiration. Next, we must face realities and 
technicalities. 


“Tough GoingFigure 3, by Rogers proves the excep¬ 
tion to a general rule advocated by some that successful 
snow pictures are found only in bright sunlight. The 
negative was exposed in a raging blizzard. Although the 
picture is one of hazy forms, it was awarded highest 
honors in an annual contest for which none of the judges 
could be called “artyT It most emphatically portrays 
snow in the air, and is fairly alive with atmospheric 
perspective. The pair of dark figures and the light build¬ 
ing in the snowy distance are in harmonious contrast: 
each emphasizes the other. They are the objects on ivhich 
the interest is focused. Graceful tree branches form effec¬ 
tive borders which hold that interest well within the 
rectangle. 

Because no exposure meter was available at the time, 
the film received heavy exposure which was one reason 
for going to a paper negative. This teas a wise procedure 
since there ivas no need to worry over possible loss of 
fine detail. A 5 x 7 enlargement was managed on glossy 
paper, and copied. From the resulting second negative, 
on Superplenachrome, a contact positive was made on 
the same kind of film. Then an 8x10 paper negative 
was printed on Velour Black Medium, semi-matt, docu¬ 
ment, single weight. This final negative was retouched 
on the back with crayon sauce. 


16 



“Tough Going’ 


Lawrence E. Rogers 


Figure 3 

Data: 1 /25 second at f:4.5, on Agfa Superplenachrome 
film, late morning in November. Final print by exposure 
with back of the negative in contact with Velour Black 
Medium paper, white, rough luster, double weight. 

Camera: Voigtlander Avus, 9x12 cm., with Skopar 
f:4.5 lens. 


CHAPTER TWO 


Sensing a Picture—Photographic Limitations 


The faculty of sensing the pictorial type of scene found 
in nature may be born in some of us. Most of us, how¬ 
ever, must gain that faculty by practice and experience, 
by trial and error, and by analytical study of successful 
pictures. 

Take a half dozen of your most appealing out-door 
scenes and stand them up in one group. Take a half 
dozen failures and stand them up in another group. 
Compare the two groups. Probably the subjects had 
nearly equal appeal when the shutter was released. Now, 
what a difference! The chances are that you will make 
these observations: 

The successful subject possesses a harmonious unity of 
pattern or elevation of an object of interest by simplifi¬ 
cation. Extraneous objects, if they appear, are subdued 
by distance or by tone. A feeling of unusual vision or of 
novelty or of mystery is likely to be present. At least one 
of the failures exhibits a multitude of things fighting for 
attention, a mess of confusion, perhaps with several 
prominent distracting lines or bands leading through or 
out of the composition. Balance of masses is lacking or a 
large area is devoid of interest. There may be a most 


18 


unpleasant gross contrast between black brush and white 
snow. A “multitude of things” is seen in Figure 26 while 
Figure 28 is a splendid example of unpleasant gross 
contrast. 

Picture quality is dependent also upon printing and 
upon the operator’s knowledge of photographic limita¬ 
tions. Printing and print quality will receive treatment 
in a later section. Eye judgment is essential now, before 
the film is exposed. First, is the oft-repeated lesson that 
the eye’s natural tendency is to select the attractive part 
of the original scene and to overlook the distracting 
objects within the angle of sight. The camera’s eye over¬ 
looks nothing within its angle of view. So the human eye 
must be trained to see form and tone as the lens sees 
them. Furthermore, the operator should base his selec¬ 
tion of subject matter upon the range of tone which can 
be reproduced in the finished print. It is much less than 
the eye sees in the original subject or than the negative 
can record. This problem of reproduction is discussed 
more completely in the section on printing. 

A focusing screen (ground glass back or reflex mirror) 
cannot be recommended too emphatically, for training 
as well as for continued use. As soon as you come to a 
promising subject train the camera upon it and focus 
upon the portion which first attracted you. Stop down 
enough for the desired depth of focus. Now, study other 
forms and tones within the rectangle which may make 
the picture. Are they in harmony with the mood and 
pattern of what you first saw, or do they kill it? If they 
are distracting and cannot be subdued sufficiently by 
selective focusing, try another view point. You may de¬ 
cide that the arrangement, as influenced by direction of 
light, will be more harmonious later today or earlier 
tomorrow. Or you may decide finally that the thing is 
not worth the film. Yet the training and the chance of a 
picture are well worth the time. And don’t be too hasty. 
Close inspection of small areas sometimes reveals won- 


19 


derail patterns which may be played up to surprising 
advantage. An all-over pattern usually calls for all-over 
sharpness. This is the time to remember the short focal 
depth of field (on close-ups) and to stop down the 
aperture. 


Frequently, for a given camera position, the focused 
image will reveal an area of charm entirely different 
from that which first stopped the picture hunter. Then 
opportunity should he seized by sacrificing, if necessary, 
what the eye first saw and by catering to camera vision. 
A pertinent example is reflections from water and ice. 
A casual glance of the eye may reveal only water or ice. 
The camera image calls attention to ripples or delicate 
texture and to the reflections mentioned in the preceding 
section. At another location, when the light is strong, the 
eye is apt to see sufficient detail in shadows and is apt to 
he dazzled by intense highlights reflected from snow or 


“The Staggering Snow Fence ” Figure 4, more than 
any subject the author ever has photographed, revealed 
itself as a picture the moment it was sighted. The big¬ 
gest element was that of luck in coming along the patrol 
at just the right time. No one as yet had tracked up the 
setting. Tree shadows, contour of drifts and texture of 
snow were revealed in beautiful blue tones. And there 
was the fence, emphasized by opposed direction of the 
tree and drift shadows. It looked so much like a drunken 
vagabond, stumbling into the scene, wandering along, 
going down and under, coming up again, and with a 
flourish or two disappearing into the unknoivn. The 
rising hill elevated the drama so that the camera could 
see it. No artist, no expert camera man needed to be 
present to record a picture. Actually both negatives 
made were heavily “over-exposed .” 

Only two unexposed cut films were left when the scene 
appeared. One was exposed with a bare lens, one with a 
light red filter. Prints from both have been shown over 


20 




“The Staggering Snow Fence” 


Figure 4 


the same title. The one reproduced here, taken with the 
filter, shows a lighter rendering of the red-gray fence. 
Sky, relative to snow, came about the same from both 
negatives, which probably means that it was hazy, with 
very little blue shoiving. Both negatives require extra 
time on the sky when printing. Also they are reversed, 
so that the fence reads from left to right on the print, 
instead of the other way as in the original scene. Trim¬ 
ming at the left is to make the first fence slats lean into 
the rectangle. Trimming at the right is to leave a little 
space beyond where the fence disappears. 

Data: 1/2 second at f: 16 on Defender XF Pan 3 1 /, x 5" 
cut film. Corning HR yellow-red filter, 3 p.m. in Febru¬ 
ary, bright sunlight from left (as printed). Print on 
Eastman PMC #11, extra exposure on sky and right side, 
highlights of texture near left edge reduced on print. 


21 










ice, thus .missing the beauty of texture and form in the 
dazzle. The camera, however, can record such details if 
they are present. Exposure and straight printing suited 
to these highlight details, though, cannot possibly render 
much shadow gradation on other portions of the print. 
So in this case it is well to work for composition and 
texture of highlights, and to eliminate surrounding areas 
or to employ them mainly as the setting. 

Color may trick the untrained eye. Snow, of course, 
shows less color than do summer subjects, but shadows 
cast on it by the sun are of a definite blue or purple cast, 
which is easily perceived on the ground glass. This color 
affects photographic contrast which can be controlled to 
a considerable extent by means of filter selection. When 
the sun is quite low the light in general tends toward the 
yellow, away from the blue. At times iridescent sparkles 
from snow points attract attention. These are difficult to 
reproduce on the print, except as spots of light which 
appear to be defects. An assortment of colored trans¬ 
parent films such as are contained in the Eastman Filter 
Test Chart makes a helpful viewing aid for choosing the 
most suitable emulsion and filter for a given subject. 
Colors found in nature will enhance many scenes but the 
viewer should not let the pleasure of color overcome his 
judgment. He should visualize the monochromatic effect 
to be reproduced upon a black and white print. He need 
not aim at absolute fidelity of light values but at pleasing 
effect. Most successful pictures contain gross exaggera¬ 
tion of tone, relative to the subject, whether the maker 
of the print admits the fact or not. 

Mystery is an element of charm for which one should 
always be on the alert. It can be overlooked by the too- 
literal photographer. Mystery may be quite obvious or 
more subtle, arousing pleasant excitement in the specta¬ 
tor’s imagination. Low key is commonly associated with 
mystery in a picture, but there are other means of accom¬ 
plishment. Hazy atmosphere and diffusion are aids. 
Sometimes just enough of an object can be shown to 


22 


appeal to the imagination. The solitary pair of ski 
tracks, Figure 25, has an air of mystery. Was the traveler 
one of a merry party or was he far from human compan¬ 
ionship, and has he found shelter for the coming night? 

Many prints disappoint the maker because paper, as 
viewed by reflected light, can yield only a fraction of the 
tone range which exists in some scenes. The eye sees 
clouds in bright sky or texture in bright snow and grada¬ 
tion in deep shadows, all at the same time. That long 
range can be compressed within the density scale of the 
paper, but the effect is flat and lifeless; or, some portion 
of the range can be reproduced in a pleasing manner. So, 
in judging a scene, limitations of the paper should be 
taken into account. Include only a limited tone range 
within the rectangle that is to he the picture or expose 
for the part that is to be featured, having in mind dodg¬ 
ing or other treatment for the portions far outside the 
featured range. Some workers advise exposure for shad¬ 
ows—others for highlights, letting other parts “take care 
of themselves.” The answer to that puzzle is to expose 
for the tones you wish to feature. The chances are that 
a reasonable exposure will record practically all the 
values in satisfactory relations on the negative. The diffi¬ 
culty comes in printing. And remember, when selecting 
exposure time, that a blank white area on the print is 
less pleasant than a blank shadow area. If a shadow 
portion is to he featured with fidelity, very bright areas 
of appreciable size should be excluded as much as prac¬ 
ticable. When these bright areas are necessary to com¬ 
plete the picture, one should expect to do some dodging 
or hand work on the print in order to obviate blank 
white paper. 

Sensing a picture is largely a matter of being in sym¬ 
pathy with the mood which one finds and of feeling that 
mood. Training in finding and recording the picture 
involves those phases which are treated elsewhere in 
more detail as locations, moods, exposure and composi¬ 
tion. 


23 


CHAPTER THREE 


Equipment 


No particular type or size of camera is required for 
winter work. A reasonably sharp lens, the ordinary 
range of lens apertures, automatic shutter speeds from 
1/100 to l / 2 or 1 second, and a focusing screen may he 
considered as the most important essentials. Other re¬ 
finements give us more pride and confidence and some¬ 
times are useful. Double extension bellows or equivalent 
is a necessity for very close work and for accommodation 
of a telephoto lens attachment. Sometimes an angle of 
view wider than normal is needed, which situation calls 
for a “portrait attachment'’ or other wide angle supple¬ 
mentary lens. Focal length of lens which practically 
dictates format size is not critical. The size of camera 
which one has available and which he knows how to 
operate is recommended. In the choice of a new camera 
one should consult his likes and dislikes, the money he 
has to spend and the weight he wants to carry. 

The old 8 x 10 “dog house” had its outstanding advan¬ 
tage. A large image on the ground glass was available for 
critical study. However, images as small as 2% inches 
square afford a sufficient criterion of the picture to be, if 
one takes sufficient care at inspection. Screens on some 


24 


of the smaller models, down to 35 mm., are provided with 
magnifiers as an aid. Without a focusing screen, such as 
a ground glass back, or a mirror and ground glass in the 
reflex type of camera, one needs to exercise more skillful 
judgment in the choice of viewpoint and depth of focus 
to obtain the most desirable result. 

A ground glass back, in spite of appearing old- 
fashioned, is the favorite of many serious workers. It is 
employed with the camera on the tripod top, near eye 
level or lowered as desired. The exposure should be 
made from the height of greatest advantage. The mirror 
image cannot be seen so conveniently when the lens of a 
reflex camera is at eye level, except in the case of those 
instruments which have a second mirror to reflect the 
image from the ground glass. The reflex type of course 
has the advantage of immediate exposure after focusing, 
and does not require a tripod for focusing on the ground 
glass. 

The foregoing discussion suggests something larger 
than a 35 mm. size, but it applies mainly to subjects 
which “stay put,” even though they include running 
water. The miniature camera comes into its own in the 
case of action shots, especially winter sports. Accuracy 
of mechanism, high speed of lens and great depth of 
focus are its attributes. Its light weight also appeals to 
the long distance hiker and to the mountain climber. 
The great depth of focus of a 2-inch lens may he detri¬ 
mental to selective focus on a “still” but requires less 
critical focusing when one’s attention is concentrated on 
snapping action at just the right instant. 

Figure 5 affords a comparison of depths of focus of 
lenses whose focal lengths approximate those most 
generally used by amateurs. 

Next to the camera, a tripod is most necessary for 
“stills.” Many of the tripods on the market are too short. 
The camera support should he able to bring the lens 
as high as eye level of the operator when he stands erect. 


25 


A tilting top is appreciated when close-ups of snow and 
ice texture are made. 

When the camera carries no focusing screen one should 
he fairly accurate at estimating distances, or should em¬ 
ploy a range finder, built into the camera or carried as 
a separate accessory. 

An exposure meter, because of film latitude, is not a 
necessity, hut a great help, especially when the light is 
uncertain. Its application promotes negatives of uniform 
average density and consequently helps to standardize 
printing. Special attention may he given to either high¬ 
lights or shadows at the time of exposure. Some learn to 


Figure 5. Chart showing relation of depth of focus to 
focal length of lens. 

Depths of “sufficient focus ” are based upon a circle of 
confusion of 1/100 inch on the negative image formed 
by the 6-inch lens, of 1/150 inch for the 4-inch lens and 
of 1/300 inch for the 2-inch lens. These choices are to 
make the limit of definition the same on all prints when 
an object photographed from the same distance through 
all lenses is enlarged to the same size of image on the 
three prints. 

Example: Suppose all three lenses are set at f:8 and 
all are set for sharpest focus on 8 feet. Suppose they all 
are used to photograph the same scene from the same 
position, and that the length of image of a particular 
object is two inches when focused by the 6-inch lens. 
Enlargements are made so that the length of this object 
image becomes 8 inches on each print. Corresponding 
conditions are tabulated. 

Circle of confusion 

Focal Approxi- Length of image at limit of 

length mate depth Enlarge- on on sufficient focus 

of lens of focus ment negative print on negative on print 

2 in. 5 to 22 ft. 12 times 2/3 in. 8 in. 1/300 in. 1/25 in. 

4 6 to 12 6 1 1/3 8 1/150 1/25 

6 7 to 10 4 2 8 1/100 1/25 

Depth of focus for other lenses with focal lengths 


26 




between 2 and 6 inches may be estimated roughly by 
interpolation among the curves shown. Depth, of course, 
is greater with any lens when diameter of aperture is 
decreased by going to a higher stop number. 

The light central curve is a plot of equal values of 
co-ordinates. Its position shows that, starting from the 
object in sharpest focus, depth extends further away 
from the camera than toward the camera. 

Upper portions of the three upper curves become ver¬ 
tical (outside the chart) when the respective lens is 
focused most sharply on the hyperfocal distance. Under 
such condition, depth of sufficient focus is from infinity 
to a point half-way between the camera and the hyper¬ 
focal distance. When the lens is focused most sharply 
on infinity, depth is from infinity to the hyperfocal 
distance. Hyperfocal distances for the conditions of the 
diagram are: 2-inch lens, 12.5 feet; 4-inch lens, 25 feet; 
6-inch lens, 37.5 feet. 


27 



















use the extinction type with a fair degree of accuracy. 
The electric type is more nearly fool-proof. 

One does not feel that his outfit is complete without 
one or more filters. Yellow and light red are the most 
useful colors, and under certain conditions one or the 
other adds much to the snap of a picture. The latest is 
a polarizing filter. Its application is discussed under 
exposure. The author’s experience is not quite in accord 
with some of the published recommendations for color 
filters. Very light yellow filters apparently do not pro¬ 
duce enough effect to he worth while. The exposure 
factor recommended here is 6 or more for orthochro- 
matic film. A suitable light red filter may have a factor 
of from 6 to 10 on panchromatic. Green filters are com¬ 
ing into some use. Their influence on the photograph is 
similar to that of the yellow ones. 

A lens shade by excluding off-side glare from snow and 
ice contributes to bright fog-free negatives. 

Clothing is important, especially on the colder days. 
Numb fingers are not so expert on camera adjustments. 
Shivers along the spine do not make the brain any more 
alert. A closely woven canvas hunting coat prevents a 
raw wind from penetrating a warm sweater worn under¬ 
neath. The coat’s generous pockets are appreciated 
greatly by the gadget toter, even though he starts out 
with all accessories neatly packed in the carrying case. 
After they once are taken out of the case he finds it more 
convenient to thrust some of them into a pocket until the 
next stand is reached. Thin gloves may be reinforced 
with heavy gloves or mittens when on the move. 

High rubber hoots, or at least high overshoes, are a 
substantial comfort when soft slush is deep and when a 
set-up in water becomes necessary. When everything is 
frozen solid hoots are warm enough only if more than 
one layer of socks can he worn comfortably between skin 
and rubber. If the snow is soft and very deep, the one 
who owns, and knows how to manipulate snowshoes, 
has the advantage. 


28 


CHAPTER FOUR 


Whiter Moods and Treatments 


Dull Days and Stormy Days 

Some of my friends refuse to take their cameras out 
into the snow unless the sun is shining. They are only 
about 80 or 90 per cent right, as judged hy the pictures 
one finds in the exhibition world. Rendition of snow 
texture is practically impossible and that of form is 
difficult with no concentrated form of light. 

Then is the time to work for composition of masses, 
with comparatively soft tonal gradations. A diffusion 
disc over the lens should he considered rather than a 
filter. Diffusion adds to the effect in blending outlines, 
but the effect should he studied on the ground glass at 
various lens stops, to prevent over diffusion. A filter may 
only increase undesirable gross contrasts, creating a 
harshness and a loss of atmospheric perspective. 

Form is less apparent on a dull day, so actual grayness 
of body or stain in snow and ice becomes helpful in the 
effort to record gradation and modeling. Examples of 
pictures made on dull and stormy days are found in 
Figures 3, 6 and 7. 

When snow is falling, the photographer has the addi¬ 
tional problem of keeping his equipment reasonably dry. 


29 


Ail umbrella may be worth carrying. Dry snow does not 
adhere to a lens which has come to the same temperature 
as the snow, but in any event the lens should be inspected 
just before exposure. 

As denseness of falling snow varies, buildings, hills or 
woods appear in different tones, relative to the atmos¬ 
phere. Careful observation will reveal when to expose 
to obtain the desired atmospheric perspective. Two or 
three exposures from the same stand afford more certain 
results. Motion of falling flakes may be stopped suffici¬ 
ently to show their forms but the photograph seldom, if 
ever, yields pleasing or natural appearing images. More 
advantage usually can be taken of the atmospheric con¬ 
dition by means of a longer exposure which blends the 
flakes into a soft light haze. 

Human and animal figures in snow pictures probably 
are of the most value on dull and stormy days (except 
for sports pictures). With lack of texture and detail, the 
scene is all set for a figure to complete the story. A com¬ 
panion, converted into a lonely foot traveler, in the 
woods, an animal hunched against the wind, are some of 
the examples. 

Fresh Drapery 

If the flakes were damp as they fell and if there was 
little wind, the fresh drapery is so attractive that one is 
tempted to shoot without proper regard for composition 
and simplicity. Also the problem is much more difficult 


“Spring Thaw ” Figure 6 , is a dull day mood , wholly 
without texture , softened by diffusion , a composition of 
tones or masses. The breaking up of winter is evidenced 
by open water, discouraged attitude of snow patches. 
Trimming brings the far shore line about one-quarter of 
the way doivn from the upper edge , and leaves a skeleton 
of scalloped border at the bottom. Snoiv patches pro¬ 
jecting into the water form a zig-zag pattern and relieve 
monotony of the tree reflections. Prints on cream and 


30 




“Spring Thaw” Figure 6 

warm tone papers harmonize with color and mood of the 
sub ject. 

Data: 1/2 second at f:ll, on SS Plenachrome 3\ 4" 
cut film , with diffusion disc , 4 p.m. in February , dull 
sunlight from left. Print on Agfa Brovira Rough “White” 
paper , extra exposure on upper corners. 


31 









when the sky is cloudy than after sunshine has arrived 
on the scene. Under weak diffuse light, pure white snow 
is likely to yield blank highlights, and dark trees to yield 
blank shadows, a very harsh combination. 

After sunshine has arrived there is reason for rapid 
travel, quick accurate judgment and skillful manipula¬ 
tion, for the sun may cause the burden of snow to fall in 
short order. One should seek ways into the composition, 
such as the leading lines of curved groups of hushes or 
trees. Horizontal hands and blocking of vision (except 
at the edges) should be regarded as possible detriments. 
Streams, roads and fresh tracks are all helpful when 
properly placed. Bare tree trunks and branches usually 
tend to come too dark. This condition may he relieved 
somewhat by choosing a filter whose color approximates 
any color evident in the bare vegetation. 

A close-up of a simple weed or other plant loaded with 
snow frequently makes a real picture, especially when 
supported by shadows which echo the pattern. See 
“Winter Flowers,” Figure 8. This is one of the times to 
aim for detail and contrast, with small aperture and 
yellow filter. If the translucence of snow on branches is 
to he recorded, angle of view, relative to angle of light, 
is all-important. Harmony, balance and simplicity of 
composition require close attention also. 

Thick hoar frost on trees and hushes and slightly hazy 
sunlight are a combination which many pray for, hut 
which is found only on rare occasions. 

Snow-covered roofs have won many prizes, hut require 
an elevated viewpoint, as from a hill, tree or near-by 
building. When only a low viewpoint is available white 
or light toned houses and churches are suggested. Their 
tone blends with snow and sky. 


“Storm Decorated” Figure 7, was taken in a blizzard 
when the snow plastered stucco and other architectural 
details took on an aspect of romance of medieval times. 
Greater distance might have expressed more of the storm 


32 



Storm Decorated’ 


Figure 7 


in the air and permitted more advantageous trimming, 
hut unfortunately a fence just back of the camera pre¬ 
vented taking a more distant view point. 

Data: 1/25 second at f:8, on Agfa Plenachrome 
214 x 3 ^ 4 " roll film, no filter, 8 a.m. in dense snowstorm, 
Print on Agfa Brovira Royal hard paper, extra exposure 
on the corner of sky and on snow along the lower edge. 





Sunshine Pictures 

One type of sunshine picture has heen treated in the 
preceding section, and includes close-ups and vistas. 
Possibilities in other types range all the way from almost 
microscopic close-ups to distant views which permit little 
more than recognition of the objects shown. They 
account for the majority of outdoor winter pictures pro¬ 
duced and exhibited. Some of the concrete visible 
building blocks of these pictures are: 


Buildings 
Streets 
Mountains 
Hills and valleys 
Trees and hushes 
Stone walls 
Fences 
Roads 

Tracks in the snow 
Streams 


Live figures 
Artificial models 
Ice formations 
Drifts 

Snow covered contours 

Shadows 

Curves 

Reflections 

Bits of sky 


A dark building not decorated with snow or ice is 
likely to he of most value at a distance, balancing or 
accenting a larger foreground image of major interest. 


“Winter Flowers” Figure 8, by Opitz, illustrates possi¬ 
bilities with snoiv and ice covered branches. In this in¬ 
stance he took advantage of two situations. He chose a 
view point so that the shadows on the snow nearly com¬ 
pleted the pleasing circles begun by the curving branches. 
He put the background trees out of focus blending them 
into subdued half tones against ivhich ice on the near-by 
branches becomes visible. Dark tones of the bush pro¬ 
vide an essential accent for the general high key treat¬ 
ment. A feeling of rare daintiness is expressed in the 
simple composition chosen. 

The maker suggests that a wider stop would have been 
desirable to soften further the background, and that a 
red filter and panchromatic film would have been help- 


34 




“Winter Flowers ” E. E. Opitz 

Figure 8 

ful to darken the sky without dodging or retouching on 
the print. 

Data: 1/60 second at f:ll on Agfa Plenachrome 
314 x 414" cut film, no filter, noon in February, bright 
sun. Negative developed in Pyro in tank. 

Camera: lea reflex, Orix f:4.5, 165 mm. (6.5-inch) 
lens. 


35 









Mountains and hills and valleys are not subject to 
posing, except in a figurative sense, as one chooses light¬ 
ing and viewpoint. A low sun or sun’s rays at a reason¬ 
ably sharp angle with the general expanse are needed to 
render relief and contour. A high viewpoint from a 
near-by elevation aids in the vertical expansion of pat¬ 
tern, often desirable. A low viewpoint adds to the feel¬ 
ing of majesty of the subject. As in other cases, there 
may be a temptation to include too much in the view. 
One peak, one hill or one valley usually should predomi¬ 
nate. Other similar hut lesser images may be utilized 
to lend support and rhythm or balance. Diagonally 
opposed lines and bands, when available, emphasize and 
stimulate interest in the major element of the picture 
(see Figure 4). 

Trees and bushes provide patterns, shadows, reflec¬ 
tions, accent for high key effects, balancing masses, and 
sky line relief—but not all in the same picture, of course. 
When photographed from the shadow side, trees must 
be employed sparingly, for they come dark against the 
white of the snow. For “Harmony,” Figure 19, most of 
the dark tree trunks were eliminated by omitting the 
upper part of the image on the negative. Viewpoint 
should he chosen with a sense of order and system and of 
harmony between vegetation and snow. Dense brush 
has little attraction. Rendition of vegetation texture fre¬ 
quently is desirable: the sunny side of a tree trunk is 
helped by a yellow filter because of the comparatively 
warm tone in the bark. 

Fences of various types form leading lines or striking 
patterns. Stone walls found in certain parts of the coun¬ 
try have a romantic appeal. Fences and walls may be 
the picture or may provide a guide for the eye, to a more 
attractive part, depending upon how they are found. 
As in the case of trees, a stone wall should not be 
recorded with too much black area on the print. 

Tracks in the snow have aided many a picture with 


36 


functions similar to those of fences, streams and roads 
(see Figure 25). The problem with tracks is to find or 
make them so as to be in harmony with the composition. 
There may be too many of equal prominence, creating 
only confusion. Before the photographer makes them 
on an unbroken field he would do well to determine 
camera position first, and then decide where they should 
go, on the ground glass. Direct eye vision is not reliable 
in this case. 

Human and animal figures are not employed to any 
great extent for exhibition pictures which include sunlit 
snow, except in sports or when action is of major interest 
as in Figure 14. The opinion is expressed, however, that 
great opportunity exists in the posing of artificial models, 
such as are shown in “Wait for Me,” Figure 12. Perhaps 
the reason that we have not seen more of this type is that 
one cannot be so comfortable working for an hour over a 
set-up out in a freezing temperature as in the house. The 
setting for “Wait for Me” was ice. Snowdrifts and snow 
areas in the backyard or away from habitation are other 
potential stages. Tracks may be formed and additional 
objects may be introduced as props. The effectiveness of 
a mimic story, to be pictured, is limited only by the 
variety of characters and the imagination and skill of 
the designer. General high key rendering, with small 
touches of dark for accent, probably will be most 
successful. 

Ice formations are legion, after the weather has been 
cold enough long enough. They are particularly welcome 
during a snow famine. Long hours and active legs are 
essential in finding the most choice ice pictures. Ice and 
snow alone may occupy practically all of a high key 
rectangle, as in “Ice Canyon,” Figure 27, or ice may be 
displayed against a dark contrasting background, as in 
“Ice Herd,” Figure 9. Rendition of texture, with appro¬ 
priate composition, should be kept uppermost in mind. 
Large areas which possess a great range of tone, from one 


37 


to another, are to be regarded with suspicion. Elimina¬ 
tion of one or the other from the angle of view permits 
very contrasty treatment of the remaining general tone, 
which treatment brings out the magic of ice texture. A 
yellow or red filter is one of the present means of increas¬ 
ing contrast. Ice sometimes shows color, from refraction 
of light or from stain in the water which has frozen. 
Whatever color is evident is to he studied for selection of 
an appropriate filter. 

Tiny highlights reflected from ice texture are to he 
sought, hut direct reflection of sunlight from a nearly 
flat area is to he treated with caution. This area is 
likely to become blocked before other portions of the 
negative receive adequate exposure and development, 
unless a polarizing filter can he utilized. Sometimes dif¬ 
fuse light from a hazy sun affords a more uniform and 
desirable distribution of the light. One should not hesi¬ 
tate to expose an attractive subject in hazy light, or even 
sometimes on a cloudy day. On the other hand, direct 
glare from ice has been put to use, especially after the 
surface had been disturbed by alternate thawing and 
freezing, and if the glare had a curved or serpentine form 


“Ice Herd," Figure 9, was found as the result of a snow 
famine one winter. Absence of snow made more urgent 
the search for ice formations, so as to have something to 
shoiv for the winter. This formation was located under 
bushes in a ravine just below a miniature waterfall. 
Spray had frozen on rocks and bush stems. A bare bank 
opposite the camera afforded a dark background. The 
ice contained a yellow tint from a pale stain in the water. 
A yellow filter, picking out the tint, seemed to accentuate 
the ice structure. Brush, rocks and running water under 
the tripod made the set-up situation very awkward, and 
only one film was exposed. That was taking a foolish 
chance. Several negatives, including more than one 
camera position, should have been made. 


38 




‘7ce Herd” Figure 9 

Various animals came to mind for a title, but the posi¬ 
tion went begging until a friend said that a “herd” was 
represented. The title and treatment are intended to 
convey the mood of a herd of animals grouped or hud¬ 
dled together for a common purpose, as for protection. 
Trimming and printing were maneuvered in an effort to 
attract the eye first to the brilliant coats of the bodies 
and then to the rhythm of the snouts toward the upper 
left quarter. Highlights in the background brush were 
reduced on the print for simplification. Ice texture 
toward the upper right corner was sacrificed, by retouch¬ 
ing, to reduce competition of interest with the main herd. 

Data: 1/5 second at f:16, on Agfa SS Plenachrome 
3Y 4 " cut film, K3 filter, noon in February, bright sun 
forward of camera. Print on Agfa Indiatone Kashmir 
White. Extra exposure on right side, long development 
for detail contrast in the principal highlights. 


39 



(see Figure 10). Moonlight effects are produced by 
exposing and printing for the glare, letting surrounding 
portions go dark. 

Sleet on tree branches and twigs absolutely requires a 
dark or half-tone background. Vegetation as the back¬ 
ground should he dense or uniform: highlights showing 
through it detract from the sleet. Uniformity and soft¬ 
ness of background are aided by throwing its image out 
of focus. When a suitable low background is not present, 
the sky may be even more valuable. Sunlight on the 
sleet, a deep blue sky, a red filter and panchromatic film 
take care of the technical problem. The pictorial prob¬ 
lem of arrangement again is that of camera position and 
angle. 

Treatment of snowdrifts and of other snow contours is 
somewhat akin to that for ice forms in that modeling and 
delicate variations of lone are to be rendered. Snow 
forms, though, translate themselves into photographs 
more by angle of lighting and by gradation of actual 
shadows, and less by isolated glints of light. So particular 
attention must be paid to shadow detail. 

Shadows are one of the most important elements of 
snow photography. They can “make or break” a picture 
depending upon fit. Tiny shadows make texture. Long 
cast shadows contribute to composition and feeling. The 
admired picture sometimes shows them connected with 
trees or other sources, sometimes as isolated abstract 
patterns. Curved and inclined directions are more pleas¬ 
ing than are straight horizontal and vertical bands, as a 
general rule. The pictorialist wishes for an omnipotent 
knowledge of solid geometry as he tries angle after angle 
and view after view in an effort to obtain attractive direc¬ 
tions and patterns. Irregular contours of surfaces inter¬ 
cept shadows so as to form welcome curves and a variety 
of directions. When the view is fore-shortened by lack 
of camera elevation, a low sun is needed to lengthen 
straight-away shadows. 

Shadows on snow are not likely to come too dark, with- 


40 



“/ce Weave” Figure 10 

Taken on Agfa film. Courtesy Agfa Ansco Corp. 

“Ice Weave” Figure 10, was found in a swamp. Slush 
had formed and frozen, leaving a bright reflective tex¬ 
ture. Probably raindrops had fallen during the thaw to 
pit the slush. Contour curves carry the eye through the 
passage at the right. The spears of grass provide accent 
and relief from monotony. Back lighting brings out 
contour and texture. The tuft of grass at the right is left 
for balance. A fine stop was employed for texture and 
depth of focus: the angle of view was downward from a 
high tripod position. 

One amateur critic says it is too cold. Perhaps that is 
the mood, or is it desolation? 

Data: 1 /2 second at f:32, on Agfa SS Plenachrome 
cut film, no filter, early p.m. in January, bright sun 
ahead. Print on Agfa Indiatone Kashmir White. Extra 
exposure on corners, especially on highlights at lower 
right, some of these high spots reduced on the print. 


41 









out a filter, unless there is some reason for subjecting the 
negative or print to very contrasty treatment. If fear of 
too dark a tone is felt the situation may be relieved by 
the use of a blue filter. Shadows in clear weather are 
lighted in part by the blue of the sky: observation reveals 
the fact very clearly. If they are weak, due to a hazy sky 
or to some other reason, they can he accentuated and the 
whole scene can be brightened with a yellow or light 
red filter. A K-3 filter was employed to emphasize the 
snow contours in Figure 18. Too much of this kind of 
filtering, though, depending upon conditions, can render 
the shadows too dense, robbing them of transparency. 
Let experience and the filtered image, before exposure, 
he your guide. 

Reflections in water, when the surface is ruffled or in 
motion, call for judgment on shutter speed. At 1/100 
second, or less time, stoppage of motion can create a 
harsh or frozen effect. At 1/25 second motion of water 
and animation of reflections were recorded as desired, in 
the case of a slowly flowing stream, while 1/2 second 
from the same position killed the charm by straightening 
the reflections, and imparting a monotonous over-all tone 
to the water. In the case of Figure 6 softness rather than 
animation was desired, when the 1/2 second exposure 
was made. On rare occasions, a glassy or slightly uneven 
ice surface is found with a picturesque hacking of re¬ 
flected forms (see Figure 1). Inspection of the ground 
glass image again reveals what to do. 

Portions of sky properly placed make for easy reading 
of the picture and often add the needed touch to satisfy 
the spectator. Clouds should not predominate unless 
they are chosen to he of major interest, in which case a 
hit of snow identifies the whole as a winter picture. The 
scene requires less explaining when the sky tone is lighter 
or darker than snow tone. Some experience is needed to 
control the relative tones, because of the color difference. 
When in doubt, expose with and without a filter. Of 
course, if one aims at mystery in a high key creation, 


42 



Figure 11. Sketch showing how recording of modeling 
and texture depends upon direction of view relative to 
direction of light. 

A camera located at A sees both the strongly reflected 
light and the shadow gradations, as it faces the sun. 
Shadows are hidden from a camera at B so that it records 
mostly empty highlights with comparatively faint grada¬ 
tions. Only two degrees of shadow on the snow are 
sketched. In nature the variety is infinite. 


blending of sky and snow practically to match each other 
is one means of obtaining the objective. 

Texture is an essential of most foreground sunlit snow 
and ice patterns. The camera finds it when facing the 
light, because it then sees the tiny shadows cast by grains 
and corrugations of the snow, and because it catches 
glancing rays of light from the wrinkled surface of ice. 
When the camera looks at snow lighted from the rear 
of the camera it sees a high key area, monotonous and 
flat: tiny shadows which reveal texture are hidden from 
view. Sketches in Figure 11 illustrate the situation. 


43 


There is one condition under which texture may he seen 
clearly from any of several angles. That is when the 
sun’s rays make a sharp angle with the surface. This 
lighting angle occurs when a very low sun shines on a 
horizontal expanse, and when an inclined surface has its 
plane nearly parallel to rays from a higher sun. See the 
snowbank in “Pattern and Texture,” Figure 15. 

Focusing requires close attention for texture, because 
fine detail is wanted and because depth of focus is shal¬ 
low at short distances from the camera. Small or mini¬ 
mum practical aperture is recommended unless there be 
motion or unless the operator desires to subdue the out¬ 
line of certain parts. Focus is set for maximum definition 
at the center of the principal area with a stop wide 
enough for judging the image; then the aperture is 
reduced for the exposure. For Figure 16 the stop was 
set at f :22 with a lens of 6.7 inches focal length. 


“Wait for Me” Figure 12, is an attempt at a table top 
effect, taking advantage of winter s high key setting. It 
illustrates only one of many possibilities on both snow 
and ice. In this particular case, somewhat diffuse sun¬ 
light, general uniformity of tone in the ice, and absence 
of filter on the lens, all contributed to the high key 
rendering. Gradations in the ice are due to both surface 
texture and translucence. Other settings were photo¬ 
graphed in the same vicinity, including an ice cavern 
and heavy shadows, but the gross contrast was too violent. 

A toy rabbit was included in the view ahead of the 
dogs, but that story was not convincing, so the rabbit 
was eliminated by trimming. The smaller dog now is 
supposed to be timid on the slippery ice and calls to 
the leader for easier going. The tall foreground with its 
triangle of highlight is included to elevate the dogs 
above the slippery expanse and to throw the line of travel 
away from the middle of the rectangle. The dark collar 


44 




on the forward dog supplies accent. A bare black area 
in the upper left corner has been lightened by retouching. 

Data: 1/10 second at f:16 on Agfa SS Plenachrome 
314 " cut film, no filter, early p.m. in February, hazy sun¬ 
light from the right. Print on Eastman Vitava Opal G, 
extra exposure on the rear dog and on the lower right 
corner of the ice. 


45 









CHAPTER FIVE 


Special Fields 


Night Work 

The moon, street lamps, house lights, automobile lights 
and portable flood and flash lamps are the sources of 
necessary illumination after the sun has set. Sufficient 
exposure on snow, lighted only by a bright moon, may be 
had in 10 or 15 minutes at f:8, on ordinary orthochro- 
matic or panchromatic film. The new very fast emulsions 
should be a boon to those who feel a cold wind on loca¬ 
tion and who are tempted to sacrifice depth of focus to a 
short exposure incident to a wider stop. 

An exposure made through the glass of a dining room 
window, 16 minutes at fill, yielded a negative of suffi¬ 
cient density. The scene (Figure 13) was lighted from a 
near-by street lamp. The room was darkened during ex¬ 
posure to eliminate reflections from the window glass. 
When automobile headlights approach, the shutter may 
be closed temporarily or the lens may he shielded with a 
black screen until the lights have passed on—unless the 
streaks of light add value to the composition. 

Intensity of illumination from a lamp near the ground 
falls off quite rapidly, going away from the source. 
Effects of resulting gross contrast should be estimated 


46 



“Christmas Snow” Figure 13 

1 he taking of “Christmas Snow ” Figure 13, should 
appeal to those who prefer not to go out into the cold. 
The camera was set up in the dining room and the win¬ 
dow was left closed. When the print was shown at a 
camera club meeting, the wife did not exactly approve 
of an announcement that it was not necessary to have 
the window glass very clean. Composition is top-heavy, 
but curves and tracks in the snow help some to balance 
the housetop and snow on the trees. Movement of the 
branches is not considered to be serious. 

A direct enlargement was retouched and copied. Re¬ 
touching removed overhead wires and streaks created by 
headlights on passing cars, and reduced some of the 
highlights in the trees. 

Data: 16 minutes at f:ll on Agfa SS Plenachrome 
314 " cut film, no filter, at night with street lamp at left. 
Final print on rough buff paper. 


47 












before final viewpoint and exposure are chosen. Control 
of lighting may he had with portable flood lights, hut 
the house yard is about the limit of territory, considering 
the length of extension cords. Yield from flash light 
exposures is uncertain because of the difficulty of esti¬ 
mating the penetration of effective light. They should he 
regarded as experiments, with the hope of recording 
something weird and interesting. 

Street and park scenes, snow contours, icicles and out¬ 
door artificial set-ups are some of the more likely possi¬ 
bilities for night pictures. Trees and poles may be 
utilized to screen the lens from direct glare of a fixed 
light. Fog or falling snow softens outlines and shows 
distance as in the day time. In addition they permit the 
photography of beams of light which are the making of 
many a picture. Sleet on trees, illuminated from a single 
source, often exhibits an interesting circular formation 
of glints of light. 

Winter Sports 

Modern popularity of skiing adds greatly to the oppor¬ 
tunities of the camera fan who wants human interest and 
action in his winter pictures. However, the other outdoor 
sports are not to be overlooked: they include skating, 
hockey, tobogganing, bobsledding and snowshoeing. 
Quick accurate decision, and action, on the part of the 
one behind the camera are the key note of success. Aids 
are fast lenses, shutters and film emulsions, and study of 
typical motions of the actors. 

Shadow detail may be sacrificed when action is the first 
objective. Movement need not always be stopped abso¬ 
lutely. A slight blurr may add to the impression of 
speed. To obviate too much blurr, a stand may he taken 
so that the optical axis makes an acute angle with the 
line of motion. Distance also reduces movement of the 
image on the film, hut the image must be left compara¬ 
tively small on the print to retain the advantage of dis¬ 
tance. As the performer makes a turn or goes through a 
cycle of movement, there are instants when motion is 


48 



“Ski Slope ” Ben D. Weeden 

Figure 14 

“Ski Slope” Figure 14, by Weeden is a splendid ex¬ 
ample of crisp ivinter atmosphere, enlivened with human 
sports interest. Lighting chosen for modeling of the 
tracks in the snow was perfect. Quick decisive action was 
required. The sky back of the hill was not a deep blue: 
a very dark storm cloud was there, about to shut off the 
sunlight. The green filter was chosen to bring out snow 
texture. In printing, the sky actually was held back 
during about half the exposure, partly to reveal more 
clearly frost on the distant trees. A distant viewpoint 
was necessary to compose the hill. Wise trimming has 
removed part of the sky, which elevates the hill. 

Data: 1/50 second at f:ll, on Eastman SS Panchro¬ 
matic film, Optochrom Universal Green filter #1, 11:30 
a.m. in January, bright sunlight from the left. 

Camera: Rolleiflex, 6x6 cm., with Tessar f:3.5, 75 
mm. (3-inch) focal length lens. 


49 




less rapid or when it may nearly cease. Those are the 
instants to identify for the exposure for minimum mo¬ 
tion. They are to be studied also for exhibition of skill 
and grace, for striking postures too transient ordinarily 
to be retained by the eye. 

Background and lighting cannot be ignored with im¬ 
punity. A monotone background of snow or sky suits 
close-up action. Groups of figures at a distance may he 
supported with more complex surroundings, when there 
is more opportunity to select view point and direction of 
light relative to direction of view. Shadows of figures are 
more dramatic when the sun is low or when the shadows 
point in the general direction of the camera, than when 
they are short and point in the other direction. Contour 
of the land also is more apparent when the shadows are 
long. “Ski Slope,” Figure 14, is a splendid rendering of 
an expansive sports scene. It suggests also the possibilities 
of individual shots at close range. 


50 


CHAPTER SIX 


Negative Emulsions and Exposure 


Plates are used so seldom now for outdoor work that 
our discussion need apply only to film, although certain 
corresponding emulsions are available on both film and 
glass. Film comes in three commonly known forms— 
roll, pack and cut—with more or less corresponding 
emulsions on all. The form to be used depends upon the 
type of camera available, and upon the class of subject 
to be handled. Roll film is suited to action shots, hut 
cannot be fitted in the common makes of focusing back 
cameras. Film pack has the advantage of compactness 
over cut film and holders. Cut film costs appreciably less 
per exposure than the other forms and permits one to 
carry a variety of emulsions, any one of which may he 
exposed at will. 

For snow and ice subjects, without motion, but with 
the camera rigidly supported, a medium speed ortho- 
chromatic film is sufficient in most cases. When a red 
filter is applied panchromatic of course is required. 
Even without such filter certain color conditions may call 
for the red-sensitive emulsion. Motion frequently is 
present, in flowing streams, wind blown vegetation, live 
figures, and in the hand held camera. Then the new very 
fast “ultra” and “press” films are appreciated. See the 
notes which apply to “Sun-flecked Stream,” Figure 18. 
Filter applications have been pointed out in preceding 
sections. Yellow and red filters increase contrast between 


51 


blue shadows and white snow. The deeper ones “pene¬ 
trate” haze, making distant objects more distinct. Such 
effect may he beneficial or detrimental, depending upon 
the mood to he featured. A red filter tends to brighten 
the scene without producing the harshness likely to result 
from just more contrasty processing. Both yellow and 
red filters, whose colors are away from the blue end 
of the spectrum, brighten clouds. Under proper condi¬ 
tions they darken the sky relative to foreground, but they 
should not he depended upon, blindly, to do so. To make 
the theory work, the sky photographed must he blue. 
So many times the sky near the horizon is hazy with far 
too little blue in it. Facing the sunlit side of snow and 
ice forms is more effective in making them come light 
relative to the sky than is the use of yellow or orange 
filter on orthochromatic or panchromatic film, when the 
camera faces the shadow side of the forms. This advice 
is based mainly on experience at low elevations in New 
England. Clearer atmosphere at higher elevations, 
especially in the far western country, is conducive to 
darker rendering of shadows and clear sky because they 
contain more blue and, therefore, are more sensitive to 
control by filter and emulsion. 

A polarizing filter reduces direct glare from snow and 
ice, with maximum effect when light rays are inclined 
to the reflecting surface at an angle of about 35°. The 
same filter darkens the blue of the sky when the camera 
faces in a direction perpendicular to the rays of the sun. 
Degree of darkening is comparable to that from a light 
red filter, hut panchromatic film is not required and the 
exposure factor is less, about three. 

After the filter, if any, has been selected, it is well to 
check focus and to readjust it if the filter has shifted 
the desired definition. Choice of lens aperture is next in 
order. Its first consideration is depth of focus desired, 
which has been discussed in other sections. Choose a 
large opening for focal perspective, a small opening for 
fine detail. Reference is made again to depth of focus 


52 



The branches and snowbank of “Pattern and Texture” 
Figure 15 , /iae? freerc photographed before but under less 
fortunate circumstances. This time the sun was in posi¬ 
tion to repeat , in shadow , some of the branch pattern on 
the snow and the suns rays made such a sharp angle 
with the bank surface that much of the texture was 
thrown into relief. Direction of light also relieved, some¬ 
what , darkness of background brush. This brush was 
and is a problem , in spite of the lighting help. Its 
prominence has been subdued considerably by trimming 
down to the nearly solid tone and by inking out , on the 
print , spots of light. 

Data: y 2 second at f:32 on Agfa SS Plenachrome 
3\ 4" cut film , no filter , early p.m. in January, bright sun 
from right. Print on Eastman PMC #11. Extra exposure 
on lower left portion. 


53 











comparisons in Figure 5. In working for fine detail one 
should remember that there is a minimum stop diameter, 
measured directly, not by the “f” number, at which the 
image starts to go fuzzy because of diffraction. This 
limit is quoted at about 0.1 inch which corresponds to 
f:20 for a two-inch lens and to f:60 for a six-inch lens. 
Numbers on camera stop scales are not carried into this 
fuzzy setting. 

Final setting is for time of exposure, taking into 
account intensity of light, film speed, filter factor, stop, 
and any special effect desired. Estimate of time is by 
guess, experience, exposure table or exposure meter. No 
method is infallible for producing negatives all of the 
same general density. However, that fact is nothing to 
worry over, since latitude of the film is so generous. The 
most reliable exposure time is arrived at by the use of an 
electric exposure meter, tempered with judgment. A 
general safe practice is to allow more instead of less 
exposure than the minimum estimated. When the 
Weston meter is shielded from sun and sky and is aimed 
at bright snow, the needle sometimes goes well beyond 
the 1000 unit end of the scale. Negatives then exposed 
for a reading of 1000 reveal no evidence of undesired 
over-exposure. In case the exposure time calculated is 
too long for movement in the subject, or possible move¬ 
ment of the camera, or cannot he approached by any 
shutter setting available, a change of filter or aperture 
is required. As a very rough guide, the following table is 
offered for snow in full sunlight, when the sun is more 
than 30° above the horizon, for ordinary films with 
Weston numbers 16 to 24, without filter: 

Stop or “f” 

number 2 3.5 4.5 6.3 8 11 16 22 32 45 

Exposure, sec. 1/1500 1/500 1/300 1/150 1/100 1/50 1/25 1/10 1/5 1/3 

The figures tabulated correspond to about double expo¬ 
sure for a Weston reading of 500. As the light progresses 
through a hazy condition to that coming through a dark, 
dense blanket of clouds, exposure is to he increased by 
factors up to 10. When the sun approaches the horizon 


54 



“Ice Jungle” Figure 16 

“Ice Jungle” Figure 16, is from one of five negatives 
made of this formation, some from another view point, 
some without a filter. Stops ranged from f:8 to f:32. 
The light red filter seemed to help catch some of the 
translucent detail. Wider stops reduced desired defini¬ 
tion in some of the icicles hanging from the “S” shaped 
branch, although definition now may be too prominent 
in the background wall of ice. Spottiness of the back¬ 
ground has been reduced by darkening highlights on the 
print. 

The motive is to picture as much as possible of the 
bright lacy formation and mysterious translucence so 
often seen in icicles. Location was near a waterfall. 

Data: 1 second at f:22 on Agfa I so pan 3 l /±" cut film. 
Corning HR yellow-red filter, late morning in February, 
sunlight from left. Print on Eastman PMC #11 contrast 
paper. 


55 





estimates become less reliable; then the exposure meter 
becomes more valuable. 

Ability to hold the camera steady in the hands varies 
with the individual. Some reach their limit of confidence 
at 1/50 second, others at 1/5 second. 

To quibble over shutter adjustments for a difference 
in film speed, like that between Weston 16 and 20 is 
absurd. Shutter action may be inaccurate by as much 
as 25 or 50%. It may be impossible to obtain an isolated 
meter reading on the most important part of the subject, 
so that the reading actually calls for 50% less or 100% 
more than a suitable minimum. And the film latitude 
will take care of an exposure considerably greater than 
the minimum required. In practice, the wise operator 
adds up to 100% to the estimated minimum, and applies 
his mind to more important details, such as angle of view 
and depth of focus. 

Double or quadruple exposure does not have so much 
effect upon negative density as one might expect. The 
curves of Figure 17 are plotted to a logarithmic exposure 
scale. Double exposure moves points to the right only 
about 0.3 unit, and quadruple exposure only about 0.6 
unit on the lower horizontal scale. 

Negatives of “Harmony,” Figure 19, and “The Stagger¬ 
ing Snow Fence,” Figure 4, were exposed by guess. Both 


Figure 17. Chart showing effect of relative exposure 
and of development time upon density in the negative. 

Curves A and B are patterned from a chart in a U. S. 
Bureau of Standards Scientific Paper. They represent 
3 and 12 minutes, respectively, of development. Scale of 
the particular emulsion is rated at nearly 100, meaning 
that the straight line part of the curve will reproduce in 
true proportions a range of light intensities whose ratio 


56 



Re.la.tive. exposure 



Figure 17 


is nearly 1 to 100. Light intensities of various parts of 
the subject photographed are represented by “relative 
exposure” To render properly all shadow gradations, 
relative exposure of the deepest shadow should be not 
less than about 10 in this particular case. 

Negative density should not be confused with opacity 
of the negative. Density is the logarithm of opacity. An 
increase of 1.0 in density means that opacity becomes 10 
times as great. 

Portions C and D picture an imaginary result suggested 
by some claims for pet developers. Such kinks in the H 
and D curve cannot be obtained by uniform overall treat¬ 
ment. A shadoiv area (C) of the negative can be raised 
and intensified if more complete local development of 
that area is feasible. 


57 
















fit the same grade of contrast of the same brand of paper. 
Judging by exposure time in printing, the first is only 
about 10% as opaque as the second. One could he called 
“under-exposed” and the other “over-exposed” in the 
ratio of 1:10. Theoretically, the first is flat in the shad¬ 
ows, the second flat in the highlights. Pictorially, the 
maker has no complaint on either of these scores. Here 
are the real and obvious faults: the first is so thin that 
very light scratches and minute particles of dust on the 
negative during enlargement, register on the print; while 
the second is so dense that printing time becomes 
tiresome. 

An old-fashioned slogan is: “Expose for the shadows 


“Sun-flecked Stream ,” Figure 18, is offered more on 
account of the modern film and paper involved than for 
pictorial appeal. High sensitivity of the negative emul¬ 
sion permitted a shutter speed rapid enough to stop 
motion of the water and to allow it sufficient exposure 
in a camera of moderate size, ivhen an 8-times filter and 
a fairly fine stop were employed. The filter was chosen 
to bring out contour of snow in the hazy light. The fine 
stop was for depth of focus. 

The print is on Kodabrom paper which is an aid to 
those who wish to save cut-and-try time in printing. It 
permits greater ranges of exposure and development 
times for a given effect upon contrast than does PMC 
paper. By the same token a given grade permits less 
control of contrast with a given developer, than does 

PMC. 

Composition of the stream is none too admirable. 
Lines are in harmony but there is no dominant form of 
major interest. The stone wall offers some variety but 
is too spotty and too insistent because the dark rocks are 
insufficiently covered with snow. 

Data: 1/100 second at f: 11 on Agfa Superplenachrome 
Press 314 x4\ 4" cut film, Eastman Wratten K3 filter, 1 


58 




“ Sun-Flecked, Stream” Figure 18 


p.m. in February, hazy sunlight forward of camera, 
image focused on ground glass back. Print on Eastman 
Kodabrom G paper, extra exposure to darken upper 
corners. 

Camera: Voigtlander Tourist, 9x12 cm., with Heliar 
f:4.5, 150 mm. (5.9-inch) focal length lens. 


59 



and let the highlights take care of themselves.” Some of 
the moderns tell us to expose for the highlights, etc. We 
should not be disturbed seriously by this apparent con¬ 
flict in teaching or practice. The answer to the puzzle is 
that modern film has such generous latitude that both 
shadows and highlights are taken care of at the same 
time, so long as serious under-exposure does not occur. 
This answer is not intended to encourage carelessness. 
It is intended to prevent waste of effort on the negative. 
The real problem of reproducing a full scale of values 
comes later, in printing. In special cases, one may wish 
to bring out the utmost in highlight detail, or, less often, 
bring out shadow detail at the expense of blank high¬ 
lights on the print. Then is the time to use great care in 
taking a meter reading confined as closely as possible to 
the one portion of the subject, and to expose accordingly. 

Advice on exposure time is based largely on experi¬ 
ence with Agfa Supersensitive Plenachrome film and on 
some consideration for dark portions of the scene. When 
a film of less latitude is used and when all the considera¬ 
tion is for highlights, more care should be taken to guard 
against over-exposure. Also, due allowance should be 
made for the high intensity of light reflected from snow. 

When working in very dim daylight or by lamplight, 
when no meter reading is available, it is well to make 
two or more exposures, separated by a ratio of about 1:8. 
A ratio of 1:2 produces a negligible practical difference. 
And remember that absolute scientific accuracy in 
making the negative just isn’t required in pictorial work. 


60 


CHAPTER SEVEN 


Development of the Negative 


Efforts in development should be directed toward me¬ 
dium contrast, fine grain and absence of defects such as 
scratches and reticulation. 

“Medium contrast” for snow and ice negatives usually 
means that resulting from a treatment which would pro¬ 
duce one grade more of contrast than is considered me¬ 
dium for outdoor summer subjects. The grade of con¬ 
trast is referred to contrast steps in bromide printing 
papers. More contrast is advised for winter than for 
summer views to provide for sharp rendering of texture 
in the former classification. Also the problem of gross 
contrast between snow and sky is not so difficult, with 
contrasty treatment, as that of gross contrast between sky 
and foreground not covered with snow. 

When the negative is processed with the idea of fitting 
a medium contrast paper, variations due to slight inac¬ 
curacies of development and to tone character of subject, 
are provided for by an available softer or harder paper. 
Another reason for control of contrast is that certain 
commonly used chloro-bromide papers, with their rich 
warm tones, suited to winter subjects, come in only one 
grade of contrast, at or on the hard side of medium. 


61 


Factors which contribute to negative contrast need 
little more than mention here. They are: time in the 
developer, agitation, concentration, temperature and po¬ 
tency of the chemical combination. Exhaustion of the 
developer works the other way as a general rule; it 
decreases contrast when other factors are left the same. 
Time is the most practical control. Wide variations in 
concentration or temperature are likely to injure or ruin 
the negative. 

Here is a bit of warning. Never place blind trust in 
the printed instructions the first time a strange developer 
is used. The first film entrusted to the solution should he 
of little importance or should he not red sensitive, so 
that it may be inspected in front of a red safe-light as 
development proceeds. Many a picture has been lost in 
processing because of blind trust. Many developing in¬ 
structions are reliable. Others, if followed, yield hope¬ 
lessly flat under-developed images, or over-developed 
images too hard for the softest paper. 

Fine and ultra-fine grain developers are essential for 
much enlargement from 35 mm. images. Fine grain is 
desirable also for larger negatives. Snow and ice texture 
is dependent upon fine detail, and one does not always 
know, in advance, how small an area of the film contains 


“Harmony” Figure 19 , was made soon after a heavy 
fall of snow , but would have been flat and worthless 
before the sun came out to create modeling and texture. 
A high view point was chosen from a convenient hum¬ 
mock to expand the view in the vertical direction. 
Accent of dark forms is prominent. In fact profusion of 
dark objects made trimming at the top something of a 
puzzle. 

A generous companion guided the maker to the loca¬ 
tion. A generous critic suggested a mood for the title. 
In spite of the harsh contrasts , he suggested that the 
lower left sang bass and that the lower right sang tenor. 


62 




“ Harmony” Figure 19 


Composition is a jumble but is aided by the diagonal 
bank lines across the lower left quarter. Bold outlines 
made the thing worth printing. 

Data: 1/50 second at f:8 on Agfa SS Plenachrome 
314 /' cut no filter, noon in February, sun forward 

of camera. Print on Eastman PMC #11, extra exposure 
on lower left quarter. 


63 








the most attractive picture. D76 is a widely used devel¬ 
oper for medium fine grain, which has the advantages of 
being one-solution, non-fogging, non-staining: and it has 
excellent keeping quality. For the intricacies and manip¬ 
ulation of ultra-fine grain developers, the reader is 
referred to current books and magazine articles. 

Some photographers, and very successful ones at that, 
have their own pet formulas and methods, supposed to be 
radically superior to those used by the other fellow. The 
answer here is that there are many chemicals and many 
paths which bring the negative to the same practical end¬ 
point; there are many things which can be done to the 
film in processing without spoiling the picture. Advice 
to the individual is to employ the formula and method 
of which he is master and which suit his needs. If for¬ 
mulas and methods are to be compared, make the com¬ 
parison yourself, directly, on films exposed exactly alike 
and from the same set-up. One can be misled quite 
easily if he neglects to control the factors which precede 
development. 

A mild warning is offered against extravagant claims 
made for some developers. Ability of one over another 
to produce more from a weak latent image, without 
creating objectionable grain and without fog, is recog¬ 
nized. This is accomplished by more complete fine grain 
development which increases over-all contrast. Some 
claims, however, suggest that the pet developer singles 
out shadow areas for more complete action, as in local 
development, and yet leaves the highlight areas in a 


“Late Winter ” Figure 20, expresses “lateness ” in gen¬ 
eral. Crusty condition of the snow and bare patches in 
the background suggest that winter is giving way to 
spring. Long shadows tell of approaching evening. Some 
critics wish to remove the upper portion, leaving a hori¬ 
zontal, ivith the upper edge just under the dense band 
of trees and bushes. They say that the picture is in the 


64 



'Late Winter 


Figure 20 


foreground , and that the dark band is awkward. Others 
prefer retention of some sky which helps indicate a late 
afternoon mood. 

Data: 1/2 second at f:6.3, on Eastman Commercial 
Ortho 3] 4" cut film , Wratten K3 filter , 4 p.m. in March , 
sun forward of camera. Print on Eastman PMC #11. 


condition normally reached by less development. Such 
imaginary and absurd result is represented by the kinked 
curve of Figure 17. 

Many of us spend little worry over the H and D curve 
but do have a serious problem in the form of defects in 
the film. A particularly beautiful strip of snow appears 
to include a hole in the emulsion. Probably a fleck of 
dust was perched there at the time of exposure. The 
remedy is to go over film holders and the interior of the 
camera frequently with a soft brush. Opening and clos¬ 
ing of the bellows create a blast of air which stirs up the 
dust present. 

The wet emulsion is easily scratched during process¬ 
ing, in the dim or lightless dark room, by long fingernails, 
projections of equipment parts and corners of the next 
film. Too much exhaustion of hardener in the fixing 
bath is responsible for some scratches after development. 
Thin lines or bands through the image are caused by 
contact with tank, tray or with other film surfaces, or by 
insufficient agitation of the developing solution. Blotches 
of stain and thin and dense spots indicate accidental 
chemical contamination. Winter photographers need 
have little worry over reticulation (wrinkled condition) 
of film because nature provides low enough temperatures 
in room air and tap water. Caution is urged, though, 
against too much sudden change of temperature, as the 
film is transferred from one bath to another. 

Film, during processing, seems to accumulate particles 
of grit from some mysterious source. These particles may 
he removed by gentle rubbing with wet cotton under a 
partly open faucet after fixing and hardening are com¬ 
pleted. Large drops of water should be removed with 
cotton or a soft sponge, wetted and wrung out, just before 
or just after the film is hung up to dry. If a drop is left 
and later runs on to a dried area, a permanent “tear 
drop” is formed. 


66 


CHAPTER EIGHT 


Printing 


Choice of sensitized paper is a necessary preliminary 
to printing. Papers are classified according to chemistry 
of emulsion, color of stock, texture of surface, speed and 
contrast. 

The most commonly known commercial emulsions are 
chloride, chloro-bromide and bromide, with speed pro¬ 
gressing in the same order. Chloride paper is used almost 
entirely for contact printing, while the other two because 
of their higher speed are employed for projection print¬ 
ing. Chloro-bromide paper yields a warmer tone than 
bromide paper. That is, the silver image has a color 
which tends toward a brown or sepia. This warm tone 
is especially suitable for dark vegetation which may be 
present in snow scenes. The warmth relieves somewhat 
the harshness of heavy blacks, without adding per¬ 
ceptible color to the highlights. For purely texture pic¬ 
tures, individual taste should influence the choice be¬ 
tween the warm tone and the blue-black of bromide 
papers. Development also has an influence on the color 
tone of most papers. Generally, longer development 
moves the color in the black or blue-black direction. 
Some developers are designed to control warmth of tone. 

Color of paper stock ranges from white through cream 


67 


into ivory and buff. Conventional practice is to employ 
white or very nearly white for daytime exposures. Buff 
is suitable for some night scenes, suggesting the yellow 
tint of night lights. A daytime scene including a brook 
flanked with snow, and with soft outlines, was printed 
on a cream colored paper, and shown to a gathering of 
advanced amateurs. A vote was taken to express pref¬ 
erence between cream and white paper for that 
particular scene. It came out about 50-50. 

Texture of surface is very much a matter of personal 
taste. One cannot go wrong with fine grain and some 
luster for most of his subjects. For extra fine detail and 
a long range of tones, glossy paper when ferrotyped is the 
answer. For a composition of masses, one may indulge 
in very rough or patterned surfaces. When a short range 
of tones conveys the mood of the picture, a flat matt 
without luster is suitable. 

Chloro-bromide papers require something like ten 
times as much exposure as a medium bromide paper. 
Printing time among bromide papers increases with the 
grade of contrast. So one accepts speed with the type 
and contrast. And grade of contrast is one of the most 
important factors which make up the all-important print 
quality. Proper contrast is especially important for snow 
and ice because neither muddy nor blank highlights are 
tolerated. 

Exposure and development of the print for top picture 
quality are very critical, as contrasted with the fact that 
exposure and development of the negative are only semi- 
critical. Explanation is in the short density scale of the 
paper. One can quickly and easily demonstrate the great 
difference of tone range between a film image viewed by 
transmitted light and a paper image viewed by reflected 
light, if he has an electric exposure meter available. 

With the aid of a photo-flood light take meter readings 
through a very thin and a very dense negative, which 
will represent shadow and highlight respectively. Calcu¬ 
late the ratio of the two readings. Next take readings of 


68 


the light reflected from white and black paper, and 
calculate the ratio. The ratio from the films may he as 
much as 20 times that from the papers. This comparison 
explains why it is so difficult to take negative tones, even 
though they are perfect from deepest shadow to strongest 
highlight, and to translate them on paper with natural 
effect. If tones ranging from those of a shadow side of a 
tree to those of glare from snow he compressed within 
the nearly straight line portion of the paper density 
curve (tones nearly in proportion), using soft paper, the 
result is a flat lifeless image. If a hard paper be chosen, 
with its short exposure scale, and a straight print he 
made, one can render properly only the shadows, or half 
tones, or highlights, while the other portions go nearly 
blank. So after all, printing has to be a compromise. 
Absolute fidelity is impossible, unless the subject con¬ 
tained no color and contained an abnormally short range 
of light values. 

The preceding statements are no reason at all for dis¬ 
couragement. Forget fidelity if necessary and work for 
an effect which pleases the eye and imagination. All 
great pictures, whether made by brush or camera, are 
untrue in some detail to any scene that ever existed. Even 
the notable works from the Purist school of photography 
are exaggerations of what the eye could see, especially 
in the shadows. How then do we obtain the pleasant 
effect? By dodging (when practicable) which is multi¬ 
ple utilization of the scale of the paper emulsion, or by 
straight printing for life and snap in the attractive areas 
of snow or ice, at least deeply enough to obviate blank 
highlights, letting the shadow tones of brush and tree go 
blank when necessary. 

Before the large print is made, a contact print or small 
enlargement is explored with a pair of cardboard “L’s,” 
for selection of the rectangle, vertical or horizontal, 
which is to be the picture. Composition is simplified and 
pulled together. Extreme highlights not wanted and 
unpleasant shadows often are eliminated by this method. 


69 


Initial choice of contrast of paper and of exposure time 
are decided by trial, estimate, records from similar nega¬ 
tives, or by meter readings. With an electric exposure 
meter, a light box and a black paper mask, the negative 
can be explored for general opacity and for gross con¬ 
trast. Gross contrast of the negative, explained later, 
affords some guidance to the contrast of paper required. 

Development of the print generally should be very 
complete for texture. A somewhat shorter time in the 
solution is in order for masses, when a middle tone pic¬ 
ture without deep shadows is the object. Hard paper 
requires less time than soft paper to reach a given degree 
of blackness in the shadow areas. 

Before discussing dodging we should have an explana¬ 
tion of detail and gross contrast, which terms are em¬ 
ployed in various parts of the text. Detail contrast is that 
which exists in the tones of fine detail, as tiny shadows 
against tiny highlights in snow texture, or as dark iso¬ 
lated twigs against a light sky. Gross contrast is that 
which exists between comparatively large masses, as a 
dark rock against surrounding snow, or as a dense mass 
of trees against a light sky. 

Dodging saves many a potential picture from the dis¬ 
card. A guess is hazarded that the majority of successful 
exhibition prints, made directly from the original nega¬ 
tives, have been dodged. Such practice certainly was 
applied to many of the prints reproduced on these pages. 
Dodging cannot very well be applied to direct change 
of detail contrast: it controls gross contrast. A portion of 
nicely modeled snow in shadow wants to come muddy; 
it is held back with a piece of black paper on the end of 
a wire, while the other areas receive proper exposure. 
A dense glaring highlight receives five times the exposure 
of the main area, through a hole in a black envelope, 
transforming blank white paper into a delight of texture 
which was recorded in the negative. Parts of sky and 
picture corners are darkened to desired shades while the 
main part is shaded with other black envelopes, bent to 


70 


curved outlines or held together to form angles. The 
dodger is held far enough from the easel so that its out¬ 
line is out of focus, and is kept moving. But little skill 
and practice are required to prevent visible outlines of 
the mask on the finished print, unless the pattern dodged 
is very intricate. 

One need not understand H and D curves to employ 
dodging, but he may be inspired to more prolific efforts 
if he takes time to appreciate the technical principle in¬ 
volved. Actually, he uses the scale of the paper more 
than once. Assume a negative with a long range of tones 
all of which comes practically within the nearly straight 
line portion of curve A in Figure 17. This range is much 
too great for the nearly straight line part of the paper 
density scale. If a medium contrast paper is exposed 
properly for the half tones, without dodging, both the 
shadow and highlight ends will be flattened out as shown 
by A of Figure 21—blind shadows at one end and empty 
highlights at the other. Suppose, for example, that the 
shadows require 10 seconds, the half tones 20 seconds and 
the highlights 60 seconds, to produce desirable grada¬ 
tions throughout. Suppose dodging complies with these 
requirements. The result is satisfactory elevation of each 
gross area and satisfactory detail contrast in each area, 
as represented by parts B, C and D of Figure 21. Dodging 
has utilized three-fold the scale of the paper. 

Some local control can be accomplished by local de¬ 
velopment, after the print has been partially developed 
and rinsed in water, before fixation. A corner or edge is 
sid}merged in the solution without letting the print and 
liquid come to rest to form a visible boundary line. Too- 
light sky and too-strong highlights on snow may be 
subdued in this manner if general exposure was enough 
and if dodging was not quite sufficient. 

Thorough fixing and washing are mentioned as a re¬ 
minder. Chemical stains may result if these steps in the 
processing are slighted, and are particularly embarras¬ 
sing in a high key picture on white paper. Soaking over 


71 


night in the hath tub in clean cool water does not injure 
a normally hardened print. 

Drying is the same as for prints of any other variety of 
subject—face down on cloth, in a blotter roll or by any 
other favorite method. Glossy paper and some makes of 
grained paper have their emulsions cracked easily if 
rolled severely when dry. Others may be drawn over the 
corner of a desk or table, under the hand, to flatten them 
without injury. Soaking in a mixture of one part of 
glycerine and five or six parts of water makes prints limp 
and more nearly flat. 

Some spotting is necessary to perfect most enlarge¬ 
ments. Dust holes in the negative image of snow may he 
filled with a brush and ink and the resultant spot on the 
print darkened to a proper degree with a pencil or a pale 
mixture of water and ink of a color to match the color 
of the print tone. Coarse distracting highlights in shadow 
masses may he reduced by careful erasure on the nega¬ 
tive. Small highlight spots are more easily corrected by 
hand work on the print, charcoal on a chamois stump 
is useful for adding faint gradation to stubborn high¬ 
lights which persist after fixation. Spotting and retouch¬ 
ing are closely related and should he studied and prac¬ 
ticed as for finishing other prints. 

Reproduction to represent truly the original print is 
somewhat uncertain. The photographs for this book are 
offered the publisher with the prayer that engraving and 
printing be kind to them, that shadow gradation and 
highlight texture be like those referred to in the text. 

After printing on bromide and chloro-bromide papers 
has been mastered, the more ambitious are inclined to 
consider toning and the so-called control processes of 
printing. The almost universal toning color for snow 
scenes is blue, because of its harmony with the blue of 
shadows. Some of the blue-toners are not so easy to 
handle; they go too far, stain the highlights or turn a 
sickly green if not manipulated just so. A delicate blue, 
confined to the shadows and half tones, is most pleasing. 


72 



Figure 21. Approximate print tones as obtained by 
straight printing and by dodging, with a negative of long 
tone range. 

Curve A is a plot of print tones from the same time of 
exposure through all parts of the negative, say 30 sec¬ 
onds. Highlights at the lower left end receive insufficient 
exposure. Shadows at the upper end receive excessive 
exposure. Both end portions are unsatisfactory because 
they are comparatively flat and blank. When exposure 
is lessened on a shadow area (D), by dodging, and in¬ 
creased on a highlight area (B), detail contrast is gained 
throughout, as indicated by steeper slope of the lines 
D and B, over that of corresponding portions of A. In 
order to prevent confusion of lines, somewhat more 
contrasty development is assumed for the dodged print. 

For an example, the water of “Winter Shadowgraph, 
Figure 23, was held back, and corresponds to portion D 
of Figure 21. The lower right highlights of “Ice Weave," 
Figure 10, were given extra exposure and correspond to 
portion B. For dodging, the whole area may be sectioned 
into fewer or more than the three areas indicated on the 
chart. A diagram to depict the printing of “Ski Track ” 
Figure 25, would be divided into four sections, instead 
of the three in Figure 21. 


73 





Sheckell published his blue-toning formula in Camera 
Craft, December, 1935. The formula and reworded 
instructions are repeated here. 


Solution A 

Distilled water. 15 oz. 

Chloride of gold . 15 gr. 

Solution B 

Water . 20 oz. 

Thiocarbamide* . 20 gr. 

Sulphuric acid.. 30 minims 


The print should be on bromide or chloro-broinide 
paper, developed for warm tones, as in Adurol. Fix and 
wash thoroughly until all traces of hypo are gone. For 
toning, take 6 oz. of A and all of B. Time for toning is 
about 20 minutes. The quantity is sufficient for about 
1,200 square inches of prints if original development has 
not been forced too much. Toning tends to darken the 
shadows slightly, so they should have been printed not 
too dark. 

Among the control processes of printing, carbro has 
been a favorite. Its rich and sparkling tone is capable of 
rendering very deep shadow, hence a long and desirable 
range of light values. It also retains fine detail needed 
for texture. Carbro is related to several variations of the 
carbon process. Gum, oil and bromoil are appropriate 

*Thiocarbamido is also known as Thiourea. 


“Moonlight” Figure 22, is the only example of com¬ 
posite photography among the illustrations. The build¬ 
ing stood about where shoivn but is rotated a fraction of 
a circle from its real position. The church, whose image 
nearly filled its negative, was taken by actual moonlight 
which shone from the left. Windows were boarded up 
at the time, so the boards were covered with white ink 
(on a process print) to represent interior light. The 
“snow ground” was exposed under late afternoon sun¬ 
light, also from the left. 


74 










“ Moonlight” 


Figure 22 


Separate prints were made from the two negatives on 
white matt paper. Sky on the larger one was darkened 
partly by dodging and partly by later handwork with 
charcoal. After both prints had been retouched, image 
of the church was cut out and cemented to the larger 
one. When the assembly was copied, a diffusion disc was 
placed over the camera lens for the purposes of obscuring 
hand work and of adding to the misty “night” 
atmosphere. 

Data, church: 17 minutes at f:8 on Eastman Commer¬ 
cial Ortho 3 l 4" cut film, no filter, 8 p.m. in February, 
bright moonlight. 

Data, snowbanks: 1/2 second at f: 11 on Eastman Com¬ 
mercial Ortho 3 1 / 4" cut film, no filter, 4 p.m. in February, 
sun at left. 

Final print on Eastman PMC #11. 


75 


for masses and soft outlines, and permit control of gross 
contrast. Processes just mentioned afford a variety of 
pigment colors. Paper negatives allow alterations of light 
tones by hand work, in finer detail than does dodging as 
usually practiced. With suitable choice of paper and 
methods, detail can be carried through to the final print 
with very little loss. For instructions pertaining to con¬ 
trol processes, the reader is referred to other publications 
on the market. Such instructions are considered to be 
outside the scope of our present general subject. 

Returning to the general subject of printing, it may he 
well to summarize the principal factors of print quality. 
“Print quality” as used here is that part of picture qual¬ 
ity which is dependent upon selection, exposure and 
processing of the paper, starting with a given negative. 

Color of paper stock —White or nearly white for snow 
in full daylight, white to huff for night scenes. 

Color of tone —In sympathy with character and mood 
of the subject—black, blue-black, blue-tone, warm 
brown. 

Texture —Glossy for maximum range of light values 
and fine detail, fine grain for the majority of sunlit ice 
and snow, matt and rough surfaces for mass composition 
and soft outlines. 

Density of tone —All highlight areas to reveal at least 
slight darkening in development, except for tiny points 
in texture. Tone at the shadow end of the scale is deter¬ 
mined by: 

Contrast —A compromise between snap in the high¬ 
lights (and half tones) and gradations in the shadows. 
Gross contrast is controlled by dodging or other manipu¬ 
lation. More snap in the upper tones, from straight 
printing, means more dense and flat tones in the shadows. 
Flatness in the shadows sometimes is desirable. 

Local tone control —Accomplished by dodging, local 
development or other methods, a remedy for the short 
density scale of the paper, permits more gradation at 
both ends of the scale. 


76 


CHAPTER NINE 


Data and Difficulties 


Notes on Exposure 

Most of the exposure data are given adjacent to the 
reproduction. Certain repetitive specifications are 
omitted there and are summarized in the following 
paragraphs. 

When only one dimension of film is given, the 314" 
means 3^ x 5 ]/ 2 inch cut film. Film developer usually 
was D76. Practically all of the author’s prints when made 
for exhibition were on 11 x 14 inch paper, white or nearly 
white, fine grain, developed in D-72. The Agfa Indiatone 
and Eastman Vitava Opal papers are chloro-bromides: 
the others are bromides. 

Most of the author’s negatives were 3^ x 5y 2 , exposed 
in an Eastman 3A Special Kodak, after the image had 
been focused on the ground glass back. This camera has 
single extension bellows, a Kodak anastigmat f: 6.3, 170 
mm. (6.7 inch) focal length lens, and a Kodamatic shut¬ 
ter, 1/150 to 1/2 second. Two of the negatives, 2% x 3%, 
were exposed in a Zeiss Ikomat camera with a Novar 
anastigmat f:6.3, 105 mm. (4.1 inch) lens and a Derval 
shutter, 1/100 to 1/25 second. All enlargements from 
these negatives were made by projection through the 
3A camera. 

Of the data usually published, those probably of least 
value to the student are shutter speed or exposure time 
(except when motion is a factor) and contrast of paper. 


77 


Exposure should be governed by intensity of light from 
the subject. Most of the negatives represented were ex¬ 
posed without the aid of a meter. Now that exposure 
meters are coming into more common usage, their read¬ 
ings ought to be included in the field records. Contrast 
of paper should be chosen to suit contrasts in the subject 
and contrast to which the negative is developed. When 
contrast paper is mentioned in the individual notes, it is 
to emphasize the importance of overall contrasty treat¬ 
ment for a particular case. Some of the more important 
descriptions to notice are stop opening, emulsion, filter, 
direction of light and dodging and retouching in 
connection with the print. 

Most of the data on exposure and printing are from 
notes recorded at the time. Therefore they are reasonably 
accurate. The reader is reminded, however, that some 
errors may have intruded, due to inaccuracy of shutter 
and to hurry and numb fingers. 

Difficulties in Winter Photography 

Conquering of difficulties depends partly upon atti¬ 
tude. Pictures come more easily to one who has a natural 
or cultivated interest in winter and a sympathy with her 
moods. Pictures come less easily to one who just wants 
winter scenes to round out his collection and who regards 
the cold and wet only as necessary evils. 

To combat the cold and wet, a cheerful attitude needs 
he fortified with suitable clothing discussed in the section 
on equipment. Fatigue and over-exertion are to be taken 


“Winter Shadowgraph” Figure 23, is the result of a 
single somewhat casual snapshot made when the full 
value of the layout was not realized. It ivas located 
around the bend of the brook from “Winter Mirror ” 
Figure 1; “Lazy Brook ” Figure 2; and “Pattern and 
Texture ” Figure 15. Advantage of the eye-level camera 
view was realized here because the view point position 
was none too high. Brush was a problem. It has been 
trimmed off at the top and right leaving the four small 


78 




“Winter Shadow-Gragph ” Figure 23 


tree trunks to balance the dark stream and heavier tree 
trunks at the left. 

Remarks from home critics suggest that the two split 
shadows “flopping in the wind ” should have been sup¬ 
ported by a clothes line. The shadows fortunately are 
curved by the contour of the bank and so impart a 
feeling of swing and abandon to the composition. They 
possess also variety in width and spacing , and are empha¬ 
sized by the opposed line of the stream. The dark 
stream needed to be held back in printing to prevent too 
much blankness but not enough to steal interest from 
the snowbank. Highlights in the upper left corner were 
darkened with ink, pencil and charcoal. 

Data: 1/25 second at f:ll, on Agfa Plenachrome 
2 \4 x 314 " roll film , early p.m., sunlight from left rear. 
Print on Eastman PMC # 11 , exposure just enough to 
reveal dim shadows on the snowbank. 


19 




into account also. Automobile or other transportation 
to the point where the hike begins saves energy for pic¬ 
ture taking. Hurry on the hike is not advised, with 
reference to both fatigue and discovery of pictures. The 
photographer can take a lesson from the trout fisherman 
who works a stream slowly and carefully, not overlooking 
the hiding places. It is so easy to pass by a picture. 
Figure 1, was photographed by its maker after his 
companion had decided to proceed along the stream. 

A serious class of obstacles in subject matter is that of 
objects which come black or very dark on the print. 
They most commonly are trees, bushes, brush, hare 
ground and hare rocks. What to do? View point, filter¬ 
ing and selective focus are the most likely weapons. 
Selective focus does not reduce the size of a clump of 
brush or an unpleasant tangle of branches against the 
sky, but it can subdue the effect, by spreading tones and 
by reducing detail contrast of the structure, and by soft¬ 
ening outlines. If a filter is available whose color matches 
color found in the dark forms, it will make those forms 
yield a less heavy darkness. 

Diffusion of the whole image is useful for softening 
distracting detail on those occasions when there is no 
need to preserve fine texture. The effect of diffusion, 
such as that obtained with a Kodak pictorial diffusion 
disk, is more convincing if applied when the film is 
exposed than when the print is made. Diffusion applied 
to printing tends to spread the shadows into the high¬ 
lights, which appears less natural than the halation of 
highlights attained by diffusion in the negative image. 

Change of view point accomplishes many purposes. 
All or part of the offending object is removed from the 
angle of view. A dark item is changed from a “sore 
thumb” to a desirable element of balance or accent. A 
jumble of trees becomes a pleasantly spaced pattern, or 
part of the jumble becomes a simple solid border or a 
barricade for an objectionable horizontal line. Bushes 
from another angle may come into harmony with their 
shadows or with the lines of a drift. 


80 


CHAPTER TEN 


Composition 


Substance of composition is tones and masses, in the 
form of lines, curves and other regular and irregular 
geometric forms, actual or merely suggested. Certain 
arrangement of them pleases the eye and arouses in¬ 
terest and emotion. The most commonly recognized 
forms are listed together with a few suggestions of the 
very many sources and examples found in the field. 

Horizontals (expressing repose)—sky line, snowbank. 
As v general rule horizontals should be used sparingly, 
and should not extend entirely across the composition. 

Verticals (denoting dignity and stateliness)—tree 
trunks, straight-away shadows. 

Oblique lines (suggesting action)—a skater, a skier, 
diagonal shadows. 

Lines in rhythm (repetition with variety)—ice forma¬ 
tions at the edge of a stream, hush shadows on a 
snowbank. 

Triangles (solid or suggested by a skeleton outline) — 
snow-laden branches, snow-covered rocks, open portion 
of a stream. 

Loops and short curves (often more pleasing than 
rectangular lines)—convolutions of ice growth or dis¬ 
turbance, wind formed ripples in snow. 


81 


Circles and ellipses (closed or nearly closed curved 
patterns)—curved branches with their shadows tending 
to complete the circuit on snow. 

“S” curve (Hogarth’s line of beauty)—a winding 
stream in the snow field, ice reflections. 

Rules of composition are man-made and, therefore, 
may he violated in some instances without harm to the 
picture. In most cases, however, they offer the surest guid¬ 
ance. They are an evolution of centuries of experience 
in creating pictures that win approval. Next are listed 
certain aspects of arrangement which contribute to 
composition and pictorial effect. 

Balance—ranging from the obvious steelyard balance 
to a subtle treatment of tones or elements of interest, 
so that the picture appears to be neither top heavy nor 
lopsided. A small image of a dark tree or of a strong 
highlight on a snowbank, in one corner or near the edge, 
balances an area of greater extent or interest, centered 
further from the edge and in an opposite quarter or half 
of the print. The balancing “weights” may be at the 
same or at opposite ends of the light scale. A more subtle 
example is that in which spacing of hands accomplishes 
the purpose or in which narrow and wide margins out¬ 
side a large irregular shaped object impart a feeling of 
proper stability. 

Location of the grass clumps in Figure 10 and spacing 
of shadows in Figure 23 represent efforts to achieve 
balance. Figure 28 achieves outstanding lack of balance. 

Emphasis—by tone, form, position, shape, direction of 
lines, any characteristic that makes the object stand out 
from other objects having opposed and common charac¬ 
teristics. A line of trees or a stone wall which runs 
diagonally opposed to many drift lines or to a multitude 
of shadows on the snow, receives emphasis. Other ex¬ 
amples are: a dark figure against a uniformly lighted 
snow field, a white snow peak against a dark sky. The 
“big egg” of Figure 24 receives emphasis because of its 
isolation from similar forms. 


82 



“Frozen Jazz” Figure 24 


“Frozen Jazz ” Figure 24, is intended to be a modern¬ 
istic arrangement of snow and ice. Judges are supposed 
to wonder what rare bird laid the big egg. Angle of 
view from a bridge was so steep that the tripod (minus 
a tilting top) could not be used. Although the camera 
had to be held by hand, the image was selected and 
focused on the ground glass bach. 

Data: 1/25 second at f:ll on Eastman SS Panchro¬ 
matic 3 l /±" cut film, no filter, 1 p.m. in February, bright 
sunlight as indicated by shadows. Print on Eastman PMC 
#11 contrast paper. 


Accent—a touch of end tone to lend snap and contrast 
to a picture having a short range of tones. A dark leaf, 
a group of twigs or a dark cavity brings appreciation to 
a generally high key rendering of frozen forms. One 
bright light accents the dim shadows of a night scene. 


83 











In Figure 12 the dark collar on the forward dog provides 
accent for a high key scene. 

Perspective—presence of the third dimension. Dis¬ 
tance is pictured by means of haze or snow in the air, 
by selective focus, by vehicle or foot tracks or other lines 
or bands which converge or which diminish in width. 
Figure 3 is an example of atmospheric perspective, and 
Figure 8 contains focal perspective. 

Simplicity—so important because lack of it creates 
confusion in the mind. Confusion debases the main 
sub ject, obscures the mood, kills the spectator’s interest. 
There should he only one major line or band of snow¬ 
drifts, only one principal branch of a brook leading 
through the snow. In a shadow picture, one shadow or a 
unified group of shadows should predominate. They 
ought not to have to compete with brilliant water reflec¬ 
tions, hare rocks or a magnificent sky of clouds. Figure 
(Text continues on page 88.) 


Barnes’ “Ski Track,” Figure 25, with the sun about to 
set back of the mountains, reminds the experienced win¬ 
ter sportsman of weary muscles, made so by hours of 
exertion. The day has been bright and full of action. 
Now the field is deserted, with the solitary track catching 
the last diffuse rays from the sun. Interest in the out¬ 
doors has palled; it note turns to a warm meal and rest. 

The track is emphasized by a large expanse of darker 
snow. The sun’s position supports the mood and com¬ 
pletes a subtle “S” curve. 

A persistent ghost image of the sun, discovered on the 
ground glass focusing screen, delayed exposure. Finally 
a camera position teas found which shifted this image to 
the right-hand portion of the negative, not needed for 
the picture. Gross contrast presented a problem in print¬ 
ing ivhich was divided into four stages, controlled by 
dodging. The sun area received about 10 times more 
exposure than the snow. Also, sky around the sun has 


84 




been doctored ivitli pencil and charcoal , applied to the 
dried print. 

Data: 1/50 second at f:4 on Agfa Super pan (Supreme) 
35 mm. film , no filter , late afternoon in April , in the 
White Mountains of New Hampshire. 

Camera: Exakta (reflex) with Zeiss Biotar f:2 , 58 mm. 
(2.3-inch) focal length lens. 


‘'Ski Track” 


Figure 25 


Carl E. Barnes 


85 




“Ice Jumble” 
Figure 26 


“Ice Jumble ” Figure 26, tells its own story of confu¬ 
sion and distraction, but it contains “Ice Canyon ” Figure 
27. Both prints were made from the same negative. 

“Ice CanyonFigure 27, did not stand out as an iso¬ 
lated picture when the film was exposed. A close ap¬ 
proach ivith the camera was prevented by a jumble of 
ice and rocks. The composition shown was rescued from 
its surroundings after exploration of the contact print. 
It so happened that the rectangle chosen contained prac¬ 
tically no severe gross contrast, so that high contrast 
could be introduced in printing. This treatment empha¬ 
sizes texture and partially compensates for some loss of 
definition when the print is made 11 x 14. 

Expression of a mood of mystery was sought, leaving 
something to the imagination of the spectator. How high 
and how cold is the wall of ice just beyond the passage 


86 



“/ce Canyon” Figure 27 

at the bottom? Trimming was manipulated to place the 
entrance off center, to lead the vision up over the frozen 
falls, and to leave little of attraction in the upper corners 
which might detract from interest in the ice texture. 

Data: 5 seconds at f:22 on Agfa SS Plenachrome 3 ^ 4 " 
cut film, Eastman Wratten K3 filter, 3 p.m. in February, 
sun forward and to right of camera. Print on Eastman 
PMC #11 contrast paper, extra exposure on foreground 
banks. » 


87 










“Brush” Figure 28 


The critic justly wonders why “Brush” Figure 28, 
ever was made. The only purpose it serves is to illustrate 
what not to do: the lesson is obvious. It looked “pretty” 
at the time, but the camera operator did not properly 
evaluate gross contrast between flatly lighted snow and 
dark brush, or the intensely lopsided balance. 


29 is entitled “Confusion” to illustrate the opposite of the 
simplicity of lines and tones attained in “Ski Track,” 
Figure 25. 

Simplicity and the other requirements are aided by 
judicious cropping or trimming. Extraneous and dis¬ 
tracting objects and tones, when far enough out, are 
eliminated. A strip of sky above a border of trees is 
removed, leaving a dark border which the eye is not 

<■< < 


88 





“Confusion” Figure 29 


“Confusion,” Figure 29, was photographed because of 
the attraction in ice texture. Texture was recorded — 
along with too many other things. The result is a “hor¬ 
rible example” companion to “Brush.” There is no sys¬ 
tem to composition. Gross contrast of black rocks and 
trees, against white snow and ice, kill appreciation. Also 
there are too many ways out. 


tempted to hurdle. An extreme case of cropping is rep¬ 
resented by Figure 27, taken from Figure 26. Control of 
shades for suitable balance is by methods of manipula¬ 
tion described under printing. Retouching must be re¬ 
sorted to in some cases before satisfaction is gained, to 
remove an incongruous shadow object from an expanse 
of pure snow, to subdue bothersome highlights from sky 
or snow showing through a clump of trees or bushes. 


89 




CHAPTER ELEVEN 


Exhibition of Prints 


Mounting and Showing 

Snow and ice require as much if not more care and 
taste in mounting than do other subjects. Neatness and 
almost severe simplicity are in order. For albums and 
portfolios, white paper with wide margins is an effective 
setting. Interest and harmony are promoted by segre¬ 
gating prints of similar subjects or treatments. Rubber 
cement permits omission of unsightly corner tabs. It is 
most convenient for both album and separate mounts. 
Cement which squeezes out from under edges of the print 
is rubbed off with a wad of waste cement which remains 
soft and resilient. 

A separate mount may consist of a single sheet of stiff 
cardboard or of two sheets cemented together outside the 
print area, with a window cut out of the front sheet to 
expose the proper rectangle of picture. If the print is 
cemented to the hack sheet at only two corners of an 
end or side, it can ‘'‘breathe” in the mount without be¬ 
coming wrinkled. White stock and wide margins are 
recommended again, except in case a light huff stock 
harmonizes more with a huff print. The quality of mount 
should not suggest cheapness; some grain is permissible. 


90 


For 11x14 prints, 16x20 mounts are correct. Even an 
8 x 10 print is not lost on this size; it is well isolated from 
its surroundings, which is the first object of mounting. 
Although the spectator may be unconscious of seeing the 
mount or border, various subtle touches do increase his 
evaluation of the picture. 

There are two reasons for photographic or inked-in 
black lines along the edges of the print. One is to keep 
the eye within the composition when tree branches or 
other lines tend to lead out of the picture. The other 
reason is to provide an accent when the scene is practi¬ 
cally all high key. If the lines are too wide or heavy, they 
defeat the purpose. A width of about 1/16 inch is 
suggested for a typical 8 x 10 or 11 x 14 print. 

When prints are displayed one at a time or on walls 
as a one-man show, effectiveness is gained again by seg¬ 
regation. Ice formations go well together, as do sunshine 
snow scenes, dull day moods, and action shots. Order of 
showing, from the weaker to the more striking, increases 
appreciation. 

The Exhibition Game 

After the advanced amateur has taken part in local 
contests and has made pictures which draw admiration 
from home critics, he naturally becomes ambitious to 
submit his work in a broader field. National and interna¬ 
tional salons afford the opportunity to enter the exhibi¬ 
tion game. The word “game” is used advisedly. It 
implies sportsmanship and luck, as well as the opposite 
of luck. One needs the spirit of a generous sport, and a 
sense of humor, to console himself in the disappoint¬ 
ments which are hound to come. Luck is “up and down.” 
A given print is accepted for a major salon and then 
rejected for a minor show. However, if one always knew 
just what a given jury were to hang, the game would lose 
its flavor. After all, jurors must have their individual 
tastes; and a purpose of exhibition is to give those 
interested in photographs opportunity to see examples 


91 


which are rated high in appeal and technique by 
recognized judges of various schools. 

Fortunately for the winter photographer, snow and 
ice pictures receive much recognition from the judges. 
Possibly one reason why such works are comparatively 
easy to have accepted is because so many exhibitors 
concentrate more on indoor subjects and on outdoor 
warm weather subjects, which condition creates less com¬ 
petition for outdoor winter creations. Also, some workers 
are not fortunate enough to live where snow and ice are. 
Among the author’s classes of subjects, outdoor winter 
scenes stand highest in both number and percentage of 
acceptances. “Editing” of an article in a certain publica¬ 
tion, June, 1938, erroneously transferred credit to vege¬ 
tation patterns. Recognition is noticed particularly in 
the United States, Canada and western Europe. The 
English appear to be partial to sunny pictures containing 
distinctive gradations and line detail. This does not mean 
that composition, print quality and other pictorial 
requirements are overlooked by the jury in any 
exhibition region. 

Entry conditions are more or less standardized. White 
mounts, 16x20 inches, with vertical or horizontal print 
attached so that the 20-inch mount dimension hangs 
vertically, are eligible for entry in practically all salons 
in the United States and Canada. Many foreign salon 
committees do not require mounting. When mounts are 
required, a 12 x 15 card makes a convenient standard 
size. Size of export package accepted by the post offiee 
is limited so that mounts much longer than 15 inches 
cannot he sent in the flat condition. Probably more salon 
prints are made on 11 x 14 paper than on any other size. 
Entry forms may be obtained by writing to the addresses 
listed in current photographic magazines. 

In order that the reader may compare relative recep¬ 
tion of subjects and treatments illustrated on these pages, 
acceptance scores are tabulated for many of the photo¬ 
graphs reproduced. To help make the scores significant, 


92 


no salons are counted which rejected all prints sub¬ 
mitted by the maker, or which apparently accepted 
practically all prints submitted by all entrants. Most 
ol‘ the salons included came within the range of those 
which hung from 10 to 50% of all entries. The records 
come from about 20 countries. Some prints on the 
average received more lenient judging than others. A 
percentage from 10 or more entries means more than 
when it is averaged from only four or five. 


Title of print 

Times 

submitted 

Times 

accepted 

Accep¬ 

tance 

Harmony . 

. 43 

23 

53% 

The Staggering Snow Fence ..... 

. 42 

38 

90 

Spring Thaw . 

. 23 

12 

52 

Ice Canyon . 

. 20 

12 

60 

Ice Weave. ... 

. 18 

14 

78 

Winter Shadowgraph . 

. 18 

12 

67 

Pattern and Texture. 

. 17 

9 

53 

Ice Herd . 

. 10 

7 

70 

Late Winter . 

6 

3 

50 

Lazy Brook. 

6 

2 

33 

Winter Mirror . 

. 4 

4 

100 

Moonlight . 

. 4 

2 

50 

Wait for Me. 

. 4 

2 

50 

Frozen Jazz .. 

. 3 

2 

67 

Ice Jungle . 

. 3 

2 

67 

Christmas Snow . 

. 2 

0 

0 


93 


















CHAPTER TWELVE 



Acknowledgement 


No one individual can have sufficient experience to tell 
enough about a subject so broad as the one we are dealing 
with here. The author has incorporated many ideas 
gathered from direct teachings of advanced amateur 
associates and from professional photographers. Books 
and magazines have been consulted for classifications and 
thoughts pertinent to winter photography. Inspiration 
has been gained from snow and ice pictures exhibited by 
other workers. Aid from all these sources is acknowl¬ 
edged with gratitude. 

Some of the works of recent years which have been 
viewed in salons or in various publications, and which 
have been reproduced, are listed. There is no pretense of 
making this group representative of pictorialists in gen¬ 
eral. Many fine pictures are made which come to the 
attention of only a few. One object of the list is to name 
splendid examples of types and moods not illustrated in 
this hook. The hope is expressed that the reader may 
see for his own inspiration some of those mentioned. 

The tabulation includes, in the order given: name of 
author, title of picture, pertinent characteristics and 
publication reference: 


94 



Martin Christmas Chimes—Street scene with snow 
or haze in the air, dark tones of near-by figures 
and of bare patches on trees afford accent and 
emphasize distance of church spires. Los An¬ 
geles Int. Salon Catalogue, 1938. 

Truran —The Road to the Church—Evident feeling 
of frost in the hazy atmosphere, church ren¬ 
dered white against a gray sky, “S” curve in the 
road. American Annual of Photography, 1938. 

Slade —After the Storm—A rare example of trees 
and branches encased in snow, with subtle dark 
edge lines and stripes of sunlight providing 
accent, snow-light reflected from water in har¬ 
mony with the general high key effect. Bombay 
Salon Catalogue, 1935. 

Kornic —Im Nebelschleier—Sun-lighted snow-cov¬ 
ered housetops, balanced by a distant spire ris¬ 
ing out of the mists, high camera view point. 
Camera Craft, February, 1937. 

Herrington —Hibernation—Extreme simplicity in 
three general tones; a dark pump emerging 
from deep snow, its half-tone shadow, and the 
surrounding high key texture and substance of 
snow. American Photography, December, 1937. 

Sheckell —Path of the Pictorialist—“S” curve of 
tracks in the snow, delicate gradations of snow 
contours. Camera Craft, December, 1935. 

Pease —A Winter Poem—Simplicity and short range 
of gross tones, “S” curve of the brook, reflections 
of sun, tree and snowbank. The Camera, March, 
1937. 

West —Translucence—Balanced pattern of fluffy 
snow on tree branches, translucent tones are em¬ 
phasized by the dark of branches and thorns. 
American Annual of Photography, 1937. 


95 


Green —Prelude to Spring—Simplicity and force of 
composition, decay of snow, luminosity of high¬ 
lights. American Annual of Photography, 1938. 

Fassbender —The Ice Serpent—Striking “S” curve of 
sparkling light reflected from a large expanse of 
ice, appropriate dark border at top formed hy 
trees on distant hank, camera faced the sun. 
American Annual of Photography, 1934. 

Washburn —Mont Blanc—Dark figure on skis out¬ 
lined against a light foreground, diagonal half¬ 
tone band leads up to the lofty mountain top 
which is emphasized hy a dark sky, exquisite 
gradations in drifted and broken snow structure 
on the slope. Zeiss Magazine, May, 1938. 

Adams —Landscape, Yosemitc Valley—Whitened 
trees casting shadows on a luminous floor of 
snow, cliff in the background with curves of hare 
rock leading up and over toward a dark corner 
of sky which accents the snow areas and adds 
vitality to the whole scene. Zeiss Magazine, 
March, 1938. 

Carscallen —Gelandesprung—Action is the keynote, 
low view point of camera elevates the ski 
jumper, the sun lights and emphasizes the front 
of the cloud of snow under the skis. Leica 
Manual, 1938. 


96 












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